DAN.  LIN  AH  AN 


,"." 

I 


THE 

MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S 
POCKET  GUIDE: 

A  TREATISE  ON 

MOULDING   AND  FOUNDING   IN    GRBEN-SAND,  DRY-SAND,  LOAM,   AND 
CEMENT;  THE  MOULDING  OF  MACHINE  FRAMES,  MILL-GEAR,  HOL- 
LOW-WARE,   ORNAMENTS,    TRINKETS,     BELLS    AND    STATUES; 
DESCRIPTION  OF  MOULDS  FOR  IRON.  BRONZE,  BRASS  AND 
OTHER  METALS  ;  PLASTER  OF  PARIS,  SULPHUR,  WAX, 
ETC.;  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  MELTING  FURNACES, 
THE  MELTING  AND  FOUNDING  OF  METALS  ; 
THE    COMPOSITION     OF    ALLOYS    AND 
THEIR  NATURE,  ETC.,  ETC. 

BT  FEED.  OVERMAN,  M.  E. 


A  NEW  EDITION,  TO  WHICH  IS  ADDED  A  SUPPLEMENT  ON 
8TATUAKY  AND  ORNAMENTAL  MOULDING,  ORD- 
NANCE, MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS,  ETC. 

BY  A.  A.  FESQUET,  CHEMIST  AND  ENGINEER. 


Illustrated  by  Forty-four  Engravings. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 
HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO., 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 
810  WALNUT  STREET. 

LONDON : 

SAMPSON  LOW,  MARSTON,  SEARLE  &  RIVINGTON, 

CROWN  BUILDINGS,  18?  FLEET  STREET, 

1885. 


COPYRIGHT, 
BY  HENEY  CAKEY  BAIKD  &  CO., 

1880. 


PREFACE. 


THE  remarkable  success  which  has  steadily  at- 
tended the  publication  of  THE  MOULDER'S  AND 
FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE,  by  the  late  Frederick 
Overman,  has  induced  the  publishers  to  engage  the 
services  of  Mr.  A.  A.  Fesquet,  in  adding  to  it  a  sup- 
plement which  shall  bring  it  up  to  the  best  practice 
of  the  present  day ;  more  especially  in  some  import- 
ant particulars,  which  are  wanting  in  the  original 
treatise.  That  gentleman  has  therefore,  after  much 
conscientious  and  intelligent  labor,  and  with  special 
facilities  which  were  extended  to  him,  in  the  most 
courteous  and  liberal  manner,  by  the  heads  of  some 
of  the  first  foundries  in  this  city,  produced  the  matter 
here  presented,  which  appears  under  his  name.  A 
full  Index  is  now  also  for  the  first  time  added. 

We  believe  that  in  its  present  form  it  must  prove 
even  more  useful  and  popular  in  the  future  than  it 
has  doue  in  the  past;  great  as  that  popularity  has 

H.  C.  B. 

PHILADELPHIA,  March  25,  1880. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  L 

MOULDING. 
MATERIALS  FOB  MOULDING.  -  PAGE. 

Sand.  Green-sand „ ~ 14 

Dry  Sand - 15 

Core-sand 10 

Clay   j_" !_" 17 

Loam 18 

Blackening   Coal-dust,  Black-lead,  Anthracite 19 

Soapstone  Powder 20 

Localities  of  Materials 21 

Grindiug-mills  for  Blackening 22 

TOOLS. 

Flasks  or  Boxes                                                                23 

Crane ". 25 

Small  Toois,''Tro\veis7cieaner,  stamper,  Shovels,  Sieves '23 

Pease-meal,  Parting-Band,  Gate-pins,  Screws,  etc 30 

MOULDING  IN  GREKN  SAND. 

Moulding  of  a  Wheel 31 

Filling  in  the  Drag-box $2 

The  Top  Box »! 

( ;;iies  y<! 

Removing  tiie  Top  Box :>.s 

Drawing  of  the  1'attern 3!) 

Blackening  the  Mould... 41 

Pattern    Fastened  to  the  Moulding-board;   Composition  of 

Moulding-sand 43 

Division  of  Labor 40 

MOULDING  IN  OTKN  SAND. 

Making  of  the  Bed 48 

Moulding  in  One  Box „ 50 

Moulding  of  a  Cog-wheel 52 

Causes  of  Failures 57 

Mouldings  of  More  than  Two  Boxes 5'J 

Small  Article.-;  of  Machinery «l 

Ornamental  Moulding 02 

Moulding  Hollow-ware ~ 00 

Small  Articles t>7 

Moulding  of  a  Coffee-kettle '.. 08 

Patterns  for  Hollow-ware 70 

MIXED  SAND  MOULDING. 
Moulding  in  Green-sand  with  Dried  Cores;  Cores  and  their 

Use 73 

•Core-boxes 75 

Moulding  of  a  Column ."!...."".....' '.". 76 


(V) 


Vi  CONTENTS. 

FAGB. 

Making  a  Pipe-core 80 

Moulding  with  Plates, 82 

DKY  SAND  MOULDING. 

Drying  of  the  Mould 84 

Glands 85 

Vertical  Castings 86 

Moulding  of  a  Large  Pipe 87 

Loam  Core 88 

Hay  Hope 88 

Core-iron 89 

Making  of  the  Core 89 

Casting  Pipes  without  Cores 93 

Moulding  Fine  Castings;  Trinkets 94 

Moulding  of  a  Stag 96 

Screwing  Together  of  Ornaments ;  Soldering,  Brass  Cast- 
ings     99 

Fine  Iron  Castings 100 

LOAM  MOULDING. 

Quality  of  Loam;  Compounding  Loam .-. 101 

Moulding  of  Simple  Hound  Forms ;  Moulding  of  a  Soap-pan  504 

The  Core 107 

The  Loam  Board 108 

The  Cope ;  Taking  Apart  the  Mould  ;  Blackwash 110 

Gates,  Gas-pipe,  Cast-gate 112 

Covering  of  the  Flow-gate  ;  Use  of  the  Flow-gate 113 

Casting  by  a  Single  Gate:  Gas-pipes 115 

REMOVING  OF  THK  COUK— MOULDING  WITHOUT  THICKNESS. 

A  si. -am  Cylinder ; 116 

Making  of  the  Cope;  the  Steam-ways 117 

Cores  for  the  Steam-ways 121 

Core  for  the  Cylinder 122 

Sullage  Piece 123 

Fastening  of  the  Cores 124 

Burying  of  the  Mould 125 

Fastening  of  the  Exhaust-pipe  Core  :  Use  of  Chaplets 12f! 

General  Heniarks  on  Loam  Moulding 127 

IUKKQULAR  FORMS. 

Moulding  of  a  Curved  Pipe 128 

<>val  Forms ;  Bathing-tub 132 

Klbow-pipe 133 

Complicated  Forms  134 

MOULDING  OP  r.ito>-/.K  OKNAMKXTS. 

Moulding  of  Statues..... 138 

French  .Mode  of  Moulding  Statues.. 139 

Present  mode  of  Casting  Statues 141 

Iron  Statues;  Bas-reliels 142 

Moulding  of  Bells 143 

MOULDS  PARTLY  OF  LOAM  OR  SAND,  AND  PARTLY  OF  METAL. 

The  Bore  of  Wheels:  Chilled  Kailroad-car  Wheels 146 

Chilled  Hollers .' 148 

Cutting  Together  of  iron  and  Steel 152 

Moulds  for  Tin.  Lead.  IV \vter,  Zinc,  Types,  etc 153 

Mould  for  Copper  ami  Brass 154 

Stereotyping;  Piaster  of  Paris  Moulds 155 

I.MI-UI..SSIO.NS  AMI  CASTINGS. 

Wax.  Crumbs  ot  Bread,  Sealing-wax 159 

Sulphur 100 

lilacs 161 

(lay.  Artificial  Wood : 162 

Plaster  of  Paris 103 


CONTENTS  V 

PAOB. 

Mould  of  a  Coin 165 

Moulding  of  Statues 168 

Castings  of  Plaster 17-2 

Taking  of  a  Mask 17:5 

Suliihur  Casting 174 

Wax  Castings,  Sealing-wax,  and  other  Casts  ;  Elastic  Moulds  175 
Alum,  Saltpetre,  Moulding  of  Natural  Objects 170 


CHAPTER  II. 

MELTING  OF  METALS. 

Qualities  of  Iron:  No.  1  Iron 179 

No.  -2  Iron.  No.  3  Iron  ;  Characteristics  of  Foundry  Pig LSI 

Mixing  of  Iron  1S4 

Kind  of  Castings 1^7 

Kind  of  Moulds:  Melting  of  Cast-iron  ;  in  the  Blast  Furnace  188 

Melting  Iron  in  Crucibles 192 

Melting  in  Keverberatories I'.Xi 

The  Cupola,  Description  of '201 

Operation  in  a  Cupola -205 

Pots '210 

Blast-machines  ;  Fans 2i-2 

Hot  Blast:  Drying  .Stoves '217 

GENERAL  1!  KM  ARKS. 

Cleansing  of  Castings 218 

Time  of  Casting -2-20 

Cost  Of  Moulding  and  Casting -2-2 1 

Melting  of  Bron/.e  Metal  223 

Melting  of  Lead,  Tin,  Antimony,  and  Brass 2-24 


APPENDIX— RECEIPTS  AND  TABLES. 

ALLOYS  OF  IRON. 

Iron  and  Sulphur,  Iron  and  Carbon,  Iron  and  Phosphorus  ..  226 
Iron  and  Silicon.  Iron  and  Arsenic,  Iron  and  Chromium, 
Iron  and  Gold.  Iron  and  Silver,  Iron  ami  Copper,  Iron  and 

Tin,  Iron  and  Lead 227 

ALLOYS  OF  PRECIOUS  METALS. 
ALLOYS  OF  COPPER. 

Bronze -2-28 

Bell  Metal  :  Bronze  for  Guns 22!> 

Bronze  for  Statues 2:>0 

Bronze  of  the  Ancient  Greeks -2:il 

Bronze  of  the  Aztecs,  Speculum  Metal,  Speculum  Metal  of 

Kosse's  Telescope -23-2 

Bronze  for  Medals,  Bronze  Imitation  of  Gold 233 

BRASS. 
Common  Brass,  Solder,  Button-brass,  Red  Brass,  Princes' 

Metal.  Brass  and  Lead,  Tempering  Brass 234 

Brass  for  Ship  Nails,  Brass  for  Pans  and  Steps,  Brass  and 
Platinum;   German  Silver,  Chinese  Packfong,  Argentan 

for  Plating 235 

Electron,  Solder  for  German  Silver,  Copper  and  Platinum, 

Copper  and  Silver,  Copper  and  Antimony 236 

Copper  and  Carbon,  Copper  and   Phosphorus,  Copper  and 


via  CONTENTS. 

PAGE- 

LEAD  AND  ITS  ALLOYS. 

Lead  and  Arsenic,  Lead  and  Antimony,  Stereotype  Metal, 
Fusible  Metal -  238 

TIN  AND  ITS  ALLOYS. 

Tin  and  Lead,  Pewter,  Queen's  Metal,  Britannia  Metal,  Ger- 
man Tin,  Music  Metal,  Antifriction  Metal,  Spurious  Silver 

Organ-pipes 239 

Imitation  of  Diamonds,  Tin  Foil 240 

ZINC  AND  ITS  ALLOYS. 

BHONZINO. 

Natural  Bronze,  Antique  .Bronze 241 

Various  Colors 242 

Bronze  Paint;  Gilding  of  Bronze  and  Brass 243 

Gilding  of  Iron 244 

Tinning  of  Brass,  Bronze,  and  Copper  ;  Zincing  of  Copper  or 
Bronze 245 

Glazing  of  Castings.  Enamel 246 

Blackening  of  Iron  witli  Plumbago;  with  Varnish 247 

Grinding  and  Polishing;  Malleable  Cast-iron 248 

Silvering  of  Iron 249 

TABLE  1—  Weight  of  a  Lineal  Foot  of  Cast-iron 250 

TABLE  II— Dimensions  of  Cylindrical  Columns  of  Cast-iron  to 
Sustain  a  Given  Load  ;  Table  III— Showing  the  Tenacities 
and  llesistances  to  Compression  of  Various  Metals  and 
Alloys  ....  .L 251 

TABLE  IV— Specific  Gravities  of  Metals  and  Alloys 252 


SUPPLEMENT. 

STATUARY,  ORNAMENTAL  MOULDING,  ORDNANCE,  ETC. 
BY  A.  A.  FESQUET. 

The  Wax  Process 253 

Accidents  ;  Finishing  :  Philadelphia  Bronze  Statuary 255 

The  New  or  French  System  ;  Objections  and  Advantages 256 

Practical  Process 257 

Separating  the  Parts  of  the  Plaster  Pattern ;  Tennons  and 

Mortices 258 

The  Flasks;  the  Copes 259 

The  Moulding 260 

The  False  Cores 261 

The  Openings  or  Gates  for  the  Entrance  of  the  Metal;  the 

Sands  Used,  etc 263 

Turning  the  Flasks  Over;  Removing  the  Pattern,  etc '->65 

Bequlremente  for  an  Inside  or  Heal  Core 266 

Air  and  Gas  Passages;  Finishing  the  True  Core 267 

To  Remove  the  True  Core ;  Fastening  the  False  Cores  with 

Wires 268 

Interior  Coating  of  the  Mould  ;  Dividing  the  Pattern 269 

Drying  the  Moulds ;  Temperature  of  the  Moulds  ;  Pressure...  270 

.Repairing  Accidents;  Melting  the  Metal 271 

Mounting  or  Joining  the  Parts  of  the  Statue 272 

The  Joints  of  Separately  Cast  Pieces 273 

Tools  Required  ;  Patterns  which  may  be  Cast  by  this  Process  274 

Hardening  the  Plaster— Alum  Plaster 275 

Moulds  for  Castings  of  White  Metals:  Zinc  Castings  :  Solders; 

Moulding  in  Wax 276 

Plastic  Clay  for  Deeply-cut  Pattern 277 


CONTENTS.  ]'j 

PAGE 

Brass  and  Bronze  Ornamental  Castings  for  Door  Locks, 

Knobs,  Hint's,  etc 278 

Ossepia  1'or  Moulding  Small  Articles 279 

Difficulty  of  the  Metal  Reaching  the  Extremities  in  Small 

Castings;  New  Alloys;  Aluminum-Bronze 280 

Phosphor-Bronze 281 

Spiegeleisen ;  Snap  Flasks.  Plate  Moulding,  etc 283 

Preparation  of  the  Mould  for  Casting;  Door  Hinges  and 

Swivels  of  Cast  Iron 286 

Uniting  of  Cast  anil  Wrought  Iron:  Small  Sand  Cores 288 

Fitting  of  the  Core  in  its  Place  ;  Malleable  Iron  Castings «89 

Cupolas;  Blast 290 

Foiulerie  a  Calebasse 29* 

Scaffolding;  Ordnance 293 

Bronze  for  Ordnance  ;  Moulding 294 

Melting  and  Pouring  the  Bronze;  Shrinkage 295 

Gen.  Uchatius's  Experiments  upon  Increasing  the  Hardness 
and  Elasticity  of  Bronze;  Moulds  for  Bronze,  Cast-iron, 

and  Steel  Ordnance;  Pig  Metal  used  for  Ordnance 290 

Moulding  Sand ;  Cast  Steel  Guns  ;  Ordnance  Cast  Solid  and 

with  Core 297 

Casting  Cannon  Balls 298 

Hollow  Projectiles ,. 299 

Hollowne.ss  in  "Solid  Shot"  caused  by  Cooling;  Crystalliza- 
tion of  Metals  in  Cooling 300 

Patterns  should  have  no  Sharp  Angles,  etc 301 

Chilled  Castings;  A.  Whitney  &  Son's  Chilled  Car  Wheels 302 

Stereotypes 305 

Electrotypes 307 

FlexibleMouids 308 

Lottinoplastique 309 

Gutta-percha  Moulds  for  Electro-Platers 313 

Gelatine  for  Moulds 314 

Contraction  or  Shrinkage  of  Metals  and  Alloys 316 

Table  of  the  Shrinkages  of  Castings 318 

Weights  of  Castings  from  Patterns 319 

Miscellaneous  Process  and  Receipts 320 

Malleable  Iron  Castings 3*2 

Imlex 334 


THE 

MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S 
POCKET  GUIDE. 


CHAPTER  I. 
MOULDING. 

THE  moulding  of  metals  and  other  materials  into 
the  various  forms,  required  for  the  accomplishment  of 
certain  purposes — whether  of  an  economical  or  or- 
namental character — is  an  object  of  high  interest. 
Moulding  is  the  noblest  of  the  arts ;  it  serves  with 
unvaried  interest  the  fine  as  well  as  the  useful  arts. 
The  heavy  castings  for  the  construction  of  machinery, 
to  the  weight  of  thirty  tons  and  more  ;  the  statues  of 
the  ancients,  and  of  modern  heroes,  are  ornaments  of 
human  genius.  The  minute,  well  finished  castings 
of  iron  and  bronze  are  evidences  of  human  skill  and 
ingenuity. 

Moulding    may   be   considered    in    two   distinct 

branches ;  the  one  is  the  moulding  proper,  the  other 
2  (13) 


14  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE 
the  forming  of  the  pattern.  Moulding  proper  is  al-' 
most  the  same  in  principle  and  in  practice  for  each  of 
the  various  kinds  of  metals  or  alloys.  Slight  varia- 
tions in  the  materials  for  moulding,  and  in  treatment, 
are  the  only  differences  in  moulds  which  are  designed 
to  be  used  for  iron,  brass,  bronze,  tin,  or  lead,  and 
other  metals.  The  principal  materials, used  in  mould- 
ing, are,  sand  of  various  kinds,  loam,  plaster  of  paris, 
blackening,  and  metal. 

Sand  is  the  most  common,  and  certainly  the  most 
perfect  and  convenient  material.  It  is  superior  to 
all  other  materials  for  moulding.  Sand  is  more  or 
less  porous,  and  very  refractory,  so  that  the  hot 
metals  do  not  melt  nor  bake  it ;  two  qualities  of 
great  importance  in  the  successful  operations  of  the 
business.  The  various  kinds  of  good  moulding  sand, 
employed  in  foundries  for  casting  iron  or  brass,  have 
been  found  to  be  of  an  almost  uniform  chemical  com- 
position, varying  in  grain  or  the  aggregate  form 
only.  It  contains  between  93  and  96  parts  of  silex  or 
grains  of  sand,  and  from  3  to  6  parts  of  clay,  and  a 
little  oxide  of  iron,  in  each  100  parts.  Moulding  sand 
which  contains  lime,  magnesia,  and  other  oxides  of 
metal,  is  not  applicable,  particularly  for  the  casting 
of  iron  or  bronze.  Such  sand  is  generally  too  weak 
or  toD  close ;  it  will  not  stand,  or  retain  its  form, 


MOULDING.  15 

y\  it  will  cause  the  metal  to  boil  by  its  closeness. 
In  practice  the  different  classes  of  castings  require 
different  kinds  of  sand  for  the  purpose  of  moulding. 
For  one  kind  of  castings  the  sand  is  to  be  porous, 
open,  and  is  still  to  be  adhesive ;  for  another 
class  it  is  to  be  very  adhesive  and  fine,  almost  free 
of  grit,  to  make  itself  conform  to  the  minutest  parts 
of  the  pattern  imbedded  in  it.  At  the  proper  places 
in  the  description  of  the  process  of  moulding,  we 
shall  allude  to  the  various  kinds  of  sand  best  quali- 
fied for  specific  purposes. 

The  best  moulding  sand  is  generally  found  along 
the  banks  of  large  rivers ;  that  procured  from  the 
shores  of  mountain  streams,  is  in  most  cases  too  coarse 
or  too  poor  and  weak.  Good  sand,  however,  has 
been  found  on  the  very  top  of  high  hills.  The  best 
is  generally  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  primary 
rocks,  or  along  those  river  banks  which  receive  their 
supply  from  the  primitive  mountains.  The  alluvium 
of  the  transition  or  metamorphous  rocks,  as  gray- 
wacke,  slate,  and  feldspar,  forms  a  very  superior 
moulding  sand,  if  it  does  not  contain  too  much  iron. 
In  the  coal  districts  there  is  generally  little  or  no 
difficulty  in  finding  good  sand,  for  most  of  the  river 
flats  arc  composed  of  that  useful  material,  which, 
however,  frequently  contains  too  much  iron,  anJ 


16  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
is  liable  to  melt  from  the  heat  of  heavy  castings, 
an  evil  which  can  be  modified  by  mixing  the  sand 
with  coke-dust,  or  anthracite  powder.  In  tertiary 
regions,  and  along  the  sea-coast,  some  spot  is  always 
found  where  fine  and  strong  sand  may  be  dug ;  in  these 
localities  the  best  kind  is  frequently  deposited.  The 
greatest  difficulty  in  obtaining  sand  of  a  good  qua- 
lity, is  mostly  encountered  in  limestone  and  volcanic 
regions,  also  where  porphyry,  mica  slate,  and  mica- 
ceous rocks  predominate.  Sand  which  contains 
too  much  iron  or  lime,  or  still  worse,  mica,  will 
not  adhere,  and  is  liable  to  absorb  and  retain  too 
much  moisture,  and  cause  rough  and  unsound  castings. 
Good  moulding  sand  has  in  its  green  state  a  yellowish 
earthy  colour,  balls  easily  on  being  squeezed  in  the 
hand,  and,  if  sufficiently  fine,  assumes  the  finest  im- 
pressions of  the  skin  without  adhering  to  it.  White 
or  gray  sand  is  generally  either  too  strong  or  too  weak. 
Sand  for  undried  moulds — green  sand  moulds — 
is  generally  more  open  or  porous  ;  it  should  not  con- 
tain as  much  clay  as  that  used  for  dried  moulds,  or  it 
cannot  assume  or  retain  the  finest  impressions  of 
the  pattern.  Sand  for  dry  moulding  is  frequently  of 
the  finest  kind,  and  very  strong  ;  for  heavy  castings 
a  coarse  but  adhesive  sand  is  mostly  selected. 
Core-sand. — The  material  most  difficult  to  obtain  ia 


MOULDING.  17 

good  core-sand.  Core-sand  should  be  coarse,  very 
porous,  but  still  very  adhesive.  Rock-sand — the 
debris  of  abraded  rock — free-sand  from  river  banks  or 
from  the  sea-shore,  pounded  blast-furnace  cinder,  and 
other  kinds  of  coarse  sand,  are  frequently  mixed  with 
fine  strong  sand,  or  with  clay ;  the  use  of  the  latter, 
however,  is  to  be  very  limited.  The  best  core-sand  is 
frequently  found  on  hillsides,  or  the  very  top  of 
hills,  in  places  where  feldspathic  or  primitive  rock 
has  recently  been  decomposed,  where  the  rock  con- 
tains sufficient  clay  to  make  it  adhere,  and  where 
the  coarse  angular  grains  have  not  supported  vege- 
tation, and  it  is  consequently  free  of  all  vege- 
table or  animal  matter.  Where  sand  of  abraded 
rock  cannot  be  obtained,  free-sand,  or,  which  is  pre- 
ferable, pounded  blast-furnace  cinder  may  be  used, 
tempered  with  clay,  barm,  pease-meal,  or  horse- 
dung.  In  the  use  of  the  latter  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal substances,  caution  is  to  be  exercised  to  prevent 
the  boiling  of  the  casting,  because  of  the  quantity  of 
gas  liberated  from  such  matter.  For  cores,  fresh 
sand  must  be  used  in  each  cast ;  old  sand,  burned 
sand,  or  sand  mixed  with  coal,  cannot  be  employed 
for  this  purpose. 

Clay  is  frequently  used  for  improving  the  adhe- 
siveness of  sand.    It  is  to  be  selected  from  the  white 
2* 


18  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
aluminous  kind,  argillaceous  earth,  or  fine  clay.  It 
is  either  dissolved  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and 
kept  in  the  foundry  for  occasional  use,  or  is  dried, 
pounded,  run  through  a  fine  sieve,  and  then  mixed  with 
the  sand.  The  hest  plan  is,  to  mix  sand  and  loam  to- 
gether, and  run  this  mixture  moist  through  a  mill ;  a 
common  grist-mill,  or  a  dust-mill,  will  answer  for  this 
purpose.  One  part  of  clay  mixed  with  nine  parts  of 
free-sand,  or  any  other  pure  sand,  is  considered  suffi- 
ciently strong  for  core-sand  ;  still  these  proportions 
depend  very  much  on  the  nature  of  the  sand,  and 
the  adhesiveness  of  the  clay,  and  also  what  kind  of 
cores  are  to  be  made  from  it.  The  sand  for  large 
and  complicated  cores,  is  to  be  stronger  than  that 
for  small  cores. 

Loam. — Common  loam,  or  clay  of  which  common 
bricks  are  made,  is  generally  used  for  loam-moulding. 
The  loam  ought  to  be  as  free  from  iron,  lime,  mag- 
nesia, and  other  alkaline  matter  as  possible,  because 
they  make  the  loam  too  hard  and  close,  and  cause  boil- 
ing of  the  metal.  Such  mixtures  are  also  not  suffi- 
ciently refractory  to  resist  the  heat  of  a  large  mass 
of  melted  iron.  If  good  loam  cannot  be  obtained,  a 
mixture  of  sand  and  clay,  as  described  above,  is  pre- 
ferable to  any  imperfect  loam.  Loam,  or  any 
cement  for  loam-moulding,  is  to  be  mixed  with  saw- 


MOULDING.  19 

dust,  horse-dung,  hair,  or  cut  straw,  hay,  or  similar 
matter,  which  makes  the  loam  adhesive  and  porous. 
Coal-dust,  Hack-lead,  and  anthracite  dust,  are 
simply  means  of  blackening  the  mould,  by  mixing  it 
with  the  sand  or  loam.  If  hot  metal  is  allowed  to 
be  in  immediate  contact  with  some  kinds  of  fresh 
sand,  the  sand  will  partially  melt,  or  if  the  sand  is 
coarse,  the  hot  metal  will  penetrate  into  the  spacea 
between  the  grains,  and  the  casting  in  consequence 
will  be  rough.  Blackening,  or  a  coating  of  carbon, 
will  prevent  in  a  great  measure  the  burning  of  the 
sand,  and  consequent  roughness  of  the  casting.  Black- 
lead  is  a  very  effective  material  for  this  purpose  ;  but 
if  used  in  too  large  a  quantity  it  is  apt  to  fill  the 
necessary  pores  of  the  sand,  and,  as  it  is  almost  in- 
combustible, will  prevent  the  escape  of  gases  from 
the  hot  metal,  and  consequently  cause  unsound  cast- 
ings. Next  to  plumbago  in  refractory  quality  is 
anthracite ;  and  its  dust,  if  not  too  fine,  is  an  excel- 
lent means  of  preventing  the  burning  of  the  sand. 
If  there  is  too  much  anthracite  dust  in  the  sand,  it 
will  impair  its  strength ;  and  if  the  dust  is  too  fine, 
it  will  fill  the  pores  of  the  sand.  Dust  of  bituminous 
coal  weakens  the  sand  considerably,  but  it  makes 
it  very  porous  and  open,  thus  facilitating  the  escape 
of  the  gas.  It  causes  the  castings  to  be  very 


20  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
smooth,  but  without  fine  impressions  ;  it  entirely  de- 
troys  the  sharp  angles.  Bituminous  stone-coal  dust 
appears  to  have  a  remarkable  influence  upon  iron. 
Oast  in  a  mould  composed  of  sand  and  bituminous 
coal,  the  iron  appears  to  be  more  gray  and  coarse- 
'  grained  than  when  in  any  other  mould.  It  is  in 
consequence  generally  weaker ;  pig  No.  2  improves 
by  it.  Coke-dust  mixed  with  sand  is  better  than  any 
of  the  enumerated  materials  for  making  large  cast- 
ings, and  for  casting  stove-plates.  It  makes  the 
sand  open,  without  impairing  its  strength  too  much. 
Coke-dust  is  not  well  qualified  for  face-dust ;  it 
does  not  make  smooth  castings.  The  most  gene- 
rally useful  coal-powder  is  charcoal  dust — ground 
charcoal  of  hard  wood,  such  as  oak,  beech,  sugar 
maple,  hickory,  or  dogwood,  well  burned.  Char- 
fioal  powder  can  be  mixed  with  sand  to  nearly  one- 
tenth  of  its  volume.  It  is  an  excellent  face-dust 
for  small  castings.  Very  small  delicate  castings 
require  a  very  strong  fine  sand,  free  of  all  coal 
and  coal-dust ;  these  cannot  be  dusted  with  char- 
coal or  any  other  dust,  for  such  would  impair  the 
finer  parts  of  the  mould.  Very  small  moulds  are 
blackened  by  a  rush  candle,  or  the  flame  of  a  pine- 
Knot. 
Soapstone  powder  is  a  very  efficacious  means 


MOULDING.  2J 

of  preventing  the  burning  of  the  sand.  For  thin 
castings,  as  stove-plates  and  hollow-ware,  it  is  not 
excelled  in  making  smooth,  sharp  castings.  Its 
use,  however,  is  not  to  be  carried  to  an  excess,  because 
it  is  as  weak  as  coal-dust,  and  finally  spoils  the  sand 
of  the  foundry  by  making  it  too  weak.  Coal  will 
burn  out  of  the  sand,  but  the  magnesia  of  the  soap- 
stone  will  not ;  both  cause  porosity,  as  well  as  weak- 
ness of  sand. 

Sand,  clay,  coal  of  every  kind,  and  blackening  are 
BO  abundant  in  the  United  States,  that  we  hardly 
need  enumerate  localities.  Good  moulding-sand  is 
found  everywhere  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Alleghenies,  from  the  old  rocks  of  Maine,  through 
the  metamorphic  strata  of  New  Jersey  to  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  along  the  sea-coast  in  the  tertiary  de- 
posit, or  in  the  coal  and  gold  regions  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas. 
In  the  coal  basins  of  the  Allegheny,  Monongahela, 
and  Ohio  rivers,  there  is  no  lack  of  good  moulding- 
sand,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Missouri  and  Mississippi.  Clay  is  also  found  there  in 
abundance,  and  of  good  quality.  Anthracite  is  in 
Pennsylvania,  in  Massachusetts,  Ohio,  and  North 
Carolina,  and  where  it  is  found,  there  is  hard  bitumin- 
ous coal,  or  splint  coal,  which  serves  the  same  pur- 


22  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET-GUIDE. 
pose.  Bituminous  coal  and  charcoal  are  found  in  every 
region  of  the  union.  Plumbago  is  found  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  other  places. 
Soapstone  exists  in  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  and  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 
There  is  an  abundance  of  good  materials  spread  all 
over  the  United  States. 

Mills  for  grinding  blackening. — Coal-dust  is  pre- 
pared in  mills  of  a  particular  construction,  to  pre- 
vent the  flying  about  of  the  blackcoal.  It  is 
commonly  ground  in  iron  barrels  which  turn  around 
their  own  axis,  and  in  which  a  number  of  cast-iron 
balls  roll  over  the  coal  and  break  it,  as  represented 
in  figure  1.  Such  an  iron  cylinder  is  generally 


Fig.  L 


from  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter,  and  from  1  to  5  feet 
long.  It  makes  from  20  to  30  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  is  moved  by  a  strap  and  pulley,  or  cog- 


MOULDING.  23 

wheels.  The  number  of  balls,  of  which  each  one  weighs 
from  25  to  50  pounds,  is  indifferent ;  the  more  there 
are  at  work  the  better.  In  the  larger  cities,  as  in 
Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia,  the  manufactur- 
ing of  blackening  and  dust  is  carried  on  by  men 
who  make  an  exclusive  business  of  it.  Remote  and 
country  foundries  prepare  their  own  dust. 

TOOLS. 

The  instruments  and  tools  used  by  the  moulder 
are  various  and  expensive.  For  moulding  in  green 
as  well  as  in  dry  sand,  boxes  or  flasks  are  used ; 
these  may  be  made  of  iron  or  of  wood.  Iron  boxes 
are  in  the  course  of  time  the  cheapest.  For  mould- 
ing in  loam,  iron  plates,  core  spindles,  wrought-iron 
bars,  hoops  and  wire,  are  used. 

Fig.  2. 


n 

Boxes  or  flasks  are  the  enclosure's  of  the  sand, 


24  MOULDER'S  ANP  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
which  is  filled  around  the  pattern.  A  flask  consists 
of  two  parts,  as  is  represented  in  figure  2,  where  A 
is  the  upper  box,  and  B  the  lower  box.  C  shows 
the  flask  from  above.  The  traverses,  which  are 
generally  wider  in  the  upper  box  than  in  the  lower,  are 
best  made  of  wood,  even  if  the  box  is  made  of  cast 
iron.  These  traverses  are  moveable,  and  may  be 
put  into  such  positions  as  to  suit  the  varied  forms 
of  the  patterns.  The  three  iron  pins,  D  D  D,  are 
to  be  well  pointed  and  tapered,  and  long  enough 
to  afford  a  safe  descent  of  the  one  box  upon  the 
other.  In  case  there  are  high  projections  on  the 
pattern,  these  pins  ought  to  be  nearly  as  long  as  the 
flask  itself  is  high.  On  each  side  of  the  flask  are 
two  hooks,  fitting  to  eyes,  which  serve  to  connect 
the  two  parts  of  the  flask  as  firmly  as  possible,  to 
prevent  a  separation  or  the  lifting  of  the  upper  box. 
These  hooks  are  to  be  strong  without  being  unneces- 
sarily heavy.  The  eyes  in  which  these  hooks  fit,  are 
firmly  fastened  into  the  wood  and  clinched  inside,  or 
are  cast  into  the  iron  when  the  box  is  being  cast.  On 
each  box  are  four  snugs  or  handles ;  these  are  for 
lifting  and  carrying  the  boxes  or  flasks.  On  large 
boxes,  and  also  on  very  small  boxes,  there  are  but 
two  handles,  in  the  middle  of  the  small  side,  strong 
enough  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  box  when  filled 


MOULDING.  25 

with  sand.  In  this  case  the  snugs,  or  swivels,  are 
in  the  axis  of  the  box  ;  and  if  a  box  is  suspended  by 
a  crane,  it  may  be  turned  around  its  swivels,  and  be 
at  rest  in  every  position.  Figure  3  shows  a  box 


suspended  from  a  crane,  which  in  most  instances 
is  the  proper  way  of  lifting  it.  We  see  here  that  a 
box  must  be  very  strong  to  resist  the  influence 
of  the  heavy  weight  of  sand  and  iron.  If  the 
box  gives  way,  the  sand  will  crack  and  drop  out, 


26       MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET-  GUIDE. 

spoiling  the  mould.  Large  boxes  should  always  be 
made  of  iron.  The  form  of  the  box  is  generally 
suited  to  the  pattern ;  if  the  pattern  is  round,  the 
box  is  made  round.  This  close  fitting  of  the  box  to 
-the  pattern  is  in  many  instances  expensive  ;  it  causes 
new  boxes  to  be  made  where  often  but  one  or  two 
castings  of  a  pattern  are  required.  The  only  in- 
convenience resulting  from  square  boxes,  is  the 
amount  of  dead  sand  in  the  corners  of  the  flask, 
which  may  be  avoided  by  putting  corners  of  wood 
or  iron  in  the  upper  or  both  boxes.  As  in  most 
cases  the  lower  box  is  not  moved,  the  weight  of  sand 
in  that  part  of  the  flask  is  of  little  consequence  ;  but 
where  the  nature  of  the  pattern  renders  it  necessary 
to  lift  and  turn  the  bottom  or  drag-box,  the  cor 
ners  of  a  square  box  may  be  spared  just  as  well  as 
in  the  upper  box.  The  chief  objection  to  a  square 
box  for  round  castings,  is  its  weight ;  but  where  a 
strong  crane  is  in  the  foundry,  a  little  more  or 
less  weight  to  be  lifted  is  of  small  consequence.  In 
all  cases,  at  least  two  inches  space  ought  to  be  be- 
tween the  box  and  the  pattern,  and  in  case  of  heavy 
castings,  more.  This  space  is  also  to  be  larger  in 
wooden  than  in  iron  boxes.  When  the  space  between 
the  box  and  the  pattern  is  too  small,  the  mould  ia 
liable  to  leak,  the  hot  metal  will  flow  out  if  th<» 


MOULDING.  27 

parting  between  the  box  and  the  pattern  is   too 
narrow. 

Flasks  are  to  be  as  rough  inside  as  they  possibly 
can  be  made,  for  it  is  by  adhesion  chiefly  that  the  sand 
remains  in  the  box.  In  large  flasks,  the  adhesion 
of  the  sand  is  increased  by  driving  into  the  tra- 
verses and  sides  of  the  box,  when  the  box  is  made 
of  wood,  nails  of  such  a  length  that  the  points  pro- 
ject on  the  inside.  In  east-iron  boxes,  nails  are 
either  cast  in  the  box,  or  its  inner  surface  is  covered 
with  projections,  made  by  driving  the  piercer  an 
inch  or  so  into  the  sand  before  casting  the  box ; 
the  latter  mode  is  preferable.  Nails  are  incon- 
venient in  many  cases,  and  in  all  cases  trouble- 
some; they  frequently  cause  imperfect  castings,  as 
the  sand  never  can  be  rammed  as  close  where  nails 
project,  as  where  there  are  none.  If  the  sand  is 
not  of  a  uniform  closeness,  the  cast  will  be  imper- 
fect ;  for  where  the  sand  is  too  loose  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  the  fluid  metal,  the  casting  will  bulge. 
A  better  method  than  the  foregoing  of  making  the 
sand  adhere,  is  to  put  as  many  traverses  in  a  box 
as  can  conveniently  be  done,  and  place  them  as 
close  together  as  possible.  The  interior  of  the  box 
is  mad}  wet,  traverses  and  all,  with  a  solution  of 


28      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
strong  loam  or  clay.     This  loam  or  clay  is  put  o~i  by 
means  of  a  whitewash  or  any  other  brush. 

Moulding-boxes  ought  to  be  made  of  cast-iron  ;  it 
makes  strong  and  durable  flasks.  Wooden  boxes 
cost  less  than  those  made  of  iron,  but  are  more 
expensive  in  the  course  of  time  ;  they  are  liable  to 
burning  and  leaking,  and  never  make  correct  cast- 
ings ;  their  pins  never  fit  well,  and  the  wood  is  apt 
to  warp.  Hollow-ware,  pipes,  and  ornaments  are  to 
be  cast  in  iron  flasks  exclusively,  or  such  castings 
are  liable  to  incorrectness.  Iron  boxes  are  more 
heavy  than  wooden  ones,  which  is  objectionable,  but, 
considering  the  greater  security  of  the  iron  flask, 
the  work  may  be  done  to  more  advantage  than  in 
wooden  flasks. 


Fig.  4. 


Small  Tools.— The  trowels,  Fig.  4,  A,  A,  areTrom 
the  size  of  a  small  mason's  trowel,  down  to  one  inch 
long  and  half  an  inch  wide.  The  trowel  is  used  for 
smoothing  down  the  surface  of  the  sand,  and  clear- 
ing away  superfluous  sand,  polishing  the  blackening  or 


MOULDING.  29 

coal-dust,  and  repairing  injuries  in  the  mould.  The 
whole  of  the  trowel  is  generally  made  of  metal, 
handle  and  all.  B,  B,  are  round  forms  of  tools  for 
polishing  hollow  moulds  of  a  cylindrical  or  spherical 
form.  C  is  a  cleaner,  often  twelve  and  more  inches 
long;  it  is  used  for  cleaning  and  smoothing  sunken 
surfaces,  where  the  trowel  cannot  be  used.  These 
tools  are  generally  made  of  steel,  but  are  thus  liable 
to  corrosion,  which  injures  their  polish.  The  best 
metal  for  tools  is  hard  bronze,  as  this  is  not  injured 
by  oxidation.  A  high  polish  and  straight  surfaces 
are  the  chief  requisites  of  these  tools.  Their  shape 
or  form  may  be  varied,  according  to  individual 
taste.  The  general  forms  as  represented,  are  the 
most  in  use. 

Fig.S. 


Fig.  5  represents  both  a  wooden  rammer  and  an  iron 
one.  The  wooden  rammer,  edge  shaped  on  both  ends, 
is  made  on  the  turning-lathe,  in  one  piece ;  it  serves 
for  pressing  the  sand  close  into  the  corners  of  the  pat- 
tern, and  also  into  the  flask.  The  other  figure  repre- 
3* 


30  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
sents  an  iron  rammer,  which,  however,  is  merely  cast- 
iron  at  one  end,  where  there  is  a  round  button  of  from 
2  to  4  inches  in  diameter  on  the  face.  The  wooden 
shank  or  handle  is  generally  tapered  or  pointed  at  the 
opposite  end  of  the  knob,  for  piercing  the  sand,  or  to 
reach  more  closely  into  corners.  Each  of  these  ram- 
mers may  be  from  2  to  4  feet  long,  according  to  the 
kind  of  work  to  be  done  with  it. 

Besides  the  tools  here  enumerated,  the  moulder  has 
short-handled  light  shovels,  for  filling  boxes  and  for 
working  the  sand;  sieves  of  various  sizes  or  meshes, 
and  a  riddle  for  filling  the  flask ;  small  bellows,  for 
blowing  dry  loose  sand  from  the  mouldings,  and  part- 
ing-sand from  the  pattern ;  and  also,  coal-dust  or  black- 
ening. The  moulder  needs  an  iron  pot  for  holding 
parting-sand,  and  also  a  water -pot :  two  or  more  linen 
bags  for  coal-dust,  black-lead,  and  pease-meal ;  a  piece 
of  rope  for  tufts,  for  which  paint-brushes  also  can 
be  used.  Piercers  or  prickers,  are  iron  or  brass 
needles,  made  of  wire,  from  £  to  ^  of  an  inch  thick  ; 
they  are  from  6  inches  to  two  and  more  feet  long, 
tapered  the  whole  length,  and  drawn  to  a  point. 

Parting-sand,  is  that  sand  which  is  strewn  over  the 
moulding  sand  where  the  boxes  separate ;  it  is  either 
free-sand,  river-sand,  sea-sand,  or  pounded  cinder; 
or  it  may  be  the  burnt  sand  scraped  off  the  castings 


MOULDING.  31 

in  cleaning  them.  Pease-meal  may  be  substituted 
by  any  other  meal ;  the  first,  however,  is  the  best. 
Many  tapered  pins  of  various  lengths,  round,  square, 
oval,  and  oblong,  are  needed  in  a  foundry  for  making 
gits  or  gates  ;  some  strong,  well-tapered  and  pointed 
screws  for  lifting  out  the  patterns ;  iron  hammers  and 
wt)oden  mallets,  small  crowbars,  pinchers  and  tongs. 
Moulding  in  green-sand. — There  are  three  dis- 
tinctions in  moulding ;  green-sand,  dry-sand,  and 
ioam  moulding.  Green-sand  moulding  is  generally 
applied  to  light  iron  castings ;  as  small,  unim- 
portant parts  of  machinery,  stove-plates  and  stoves, 
hollow-ware,  grate-bars  and  fire-grates,  shot  and 
cart-wheel  bushes,  water-pipes,  gas-pipes,  and  many 
other  articles.  This  method  is  seldom  used  for 
any  other  metal  than  iron.  In  making  a  mould 
for  a  small  piece  of  machinery,  say  a  wheel,  in 
green-sand,  the  pattern  is  put  upon  a  flat  board, 
which  is  laid  perfectly  level  upon  the  floor  of  the 
foundry,  or,  for  small  articles,  upon  a  pair  of  trusses, 
or  a  box  which  contains  sand.  Upon  this  board 
the  pattern  is  laid  with  Us  smooth  side  on  the  board. 
If  the  pattern  is  divided  in  two  halves,  but  one  half 
of  it  is  laid  down,  the  jointed  side  upon  the  board. 
Figure  6  shows  the  arrangement  seen  from  above. 
The  board  is  to  be  straight  and  well  planed,  and 


32     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

Fig.  6. 


made  of  two-inch  pine  plank,  or,  if  the  article  is 
small,  but  one-inch.  After  the  wheel  is  laid  down  and 
well  adjusted,  or  made  solid  by  sprinkling  some  sand 
on  those  places  where  it  does  not  touch  the  board, 
the  lower  box  of  the  flask  is  put  down  inverted  upon 
the  board.  Before  the  drag-box  is  put  down,  a 
layer  of  sand  of  one  inch  thick  is  frequently  spread 
over  the  pattern  and  the  board.  In  this  sand  the 
box  is  imbedded,  and  rests  more  firmly  in  it  than 
upon  the  bare  board  ;  the  box  and  pattern  are  not  so 
liable  to  shake,  or  the  board  to  vibrate.  The  first 
layer  of  sand  upon  the  pattern  is  to  be  worked 
through  a  fine  sieve :  this  sieve  is  to  be  finer,  the 
smaller  and  thinner  the  pattern,  or  the  more  smooth 
the  surface  of  the  casting  is  to  be.  This  facing-sand, 
or  the  first  layer,  is,  in  instances  where  a  very  smooth 
sharp  impression  is  required,  to  be  fresh  sand  from 
the  pit,  which  never  before  has  been  in  a  mould. 
Of  such  fresh  sand,  a  layer  of  ^  to  J  of  an  inch  in 


MOULDING.  £3 

thickness  is  to  be  sifted  over  the  pattern.  One  inch, 
or,  according  to  the  pattern,  a  greater  depth  of  fine 
sand,  is  to  form  the  facing  of  the  mould.  All  coarse 
grains  of  sand  are  to  be  prevented  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  pattern.  If  the  pattern  is  compli- 
cated, or  contains  many  nooks  and  corners,  the  facing 
is  pressed  to  the  pattern  by  hand,  to  secure  a  uni- 
form covering  and  a  uniform  tightness  of  the  sand. 
After  the  facing  is  properly  secured,  common  mould- 
ing-sand is  thrown  into  the  box  through  a  coarse 
riddle,  flush  with  the  box.  This  sand  is  rammed  down, 
cautiously  and  uniformly,  with  the  wooden  and  edged 
stamper.  When  the  first  box-full  of  sand  is  secured 
and  well  worked  into  the  cavities  of  the  pattern,  the 
box  may  be  filled  again  by  throwing  in  sand  from 
the  pile,  which  is  repeated  until  the  box  is  properly 
filled  and  of  uniform  tightness.  The  coarse,  or  last 
sand,  is  rammed  with  the  round  iron  stamper,  the 
superfluous  sand  is  stricken  off  by  running  an  edge 
rule  over  the  box,  so  as  to  make  the  sand  perfectly 
flush  with  the  box.  If  this  first,  or  the  drag-box, 
has  traverses,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  there  are 
often  difficulties  in  getting  the  sand  properly  distri- 
buted over  the  pattern,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  obtain 
a  uniform  compactness  of  the  sand.  Traverses  in 
the  drag-box  are  admitted  only  in  cases  of  very 


r\      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

smooth  single  patterns.  Most  of  the  moulds  are 
made  without  traverses  in  the  lower  box ;  it  is  con- 
sidered more  safe  in  working  the  sand,  and  the  work 
is  done  easier  and  faster.  "When  there  are  no  tra- 
verses in  the  lower  box,  the  sand,  after  being  levelled, 
is  sprinkled  over  with  some  loose  sand  and  covered 
with  a  board,  which  covers  the  box  all  over ;  it  is 
gently  rubbed  on,  and  the  whole,  box  and  board,  turned 
over,  so  that  the  former  bottom  is  now  the  top  of 
the  box.  If  the  patterns  are  large,  and  the  box  is 
heavy,  it  is  necessary  to  fasten  both  bottoms  to  the 
box  by  means  of  glands,  so  that  no  slipping  of  the 
boards  may  happen  while  the  box  is  turned  over. 
If  traverses  are  in  the  box,  and  no  bottom  is  used, 
a  smooth  place  on  the  floor  of  the  foundry  is  to  be 
prepared  beforehand,  upon  which  the  box  is  laid. 
In  case  there  are  no  traverses,  it  is  set  upon  a 
plank  bottom.  When  the  box  is  deposited  in  its 
proper  position,  that  is,  in  that  place  where  the 
casting  is  to  be  performed,  the  first  bottom  upon 
which  the  pattern  was  laid  is  removed,  in  which 
there  is  no  difficulty,  if  the  bottom  is  not  fastened 
to  the  pattern.  This  bottom  is  frequently  fastened 
to  the  pattern,  which  is  done  in  cases  where  tho 
patterns  are  limber;  as  is  the  case  with  light  and 
ornamented  railing,  ornamented  stove  or  fire-grate 


MOULDING.  35 

plates.  In  this  case  a  few  gentlo  tups  are  to 
be  given  on  the  back  of  the  board,  either  with  a 
wooden  mallet  where  the  bottom  is  of  value,  or  with 
an  iron  hammer ;  these  taps  will  loosen  the  sand  at 
the  pattern,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  breaking  or 
injuring  the  facing  of  the  mould.  In  this  case  the 
join-pins  of  the  boxes  are  fastened  to  the  drag-box, 
and  are  to  go  through  the  bottom  to  secure  the  exact 
position  of  the  pattern  in  the  sand,  when  repairs 
are  to  be  made  to  the  mould,  in  which  cases  the  pat- 
tern is  put  in  again  after  having  been  removed. 
In  ordinary  cases  these  pins  are  fastened  to  the 
upper  box.  In  many  instances  no  bottom  for  the 
pattern  is  used,  but  the  upper  box  of  the  flask  is 
tilled  with  sand,  rammed  in  and  levelled ;  upon  this 
the  pattern  is  bedded,  then  the  drag-box  put  on,  and 
the  work  done  as  described  above.  It  is  a  bad 
practice  to  work  without  a  pattern-bottom ;  it  is  a 
slow  way  of  working,  the  patterns  are  liable  to  be 
injured  or  bent,  and  the  castings  are  never  very  fine 
or  correct.  After  the  bottom  is  removed,  the  uppe: 
surface  of  the  sand-parting  is  smoothed  down,  and 
the  superfluous  sand  cut  away  by  means  of  a  trowel. 
Pattern,  sand,  and  box  are  to  form  one  flush  surface ; 
this  surface  forms  the  parting.  The  parting-surface  is 
thinly  covered  with  parting-sand,  gently  sprinkled 


G6  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
on  by  hand ;  as  small  a  quantity  as  possible  is  to  be 
used,  just  enough  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the 
moulding-sand.  As  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  throw- 
ing some  of  the  parting-sand  on  the  pattern,  which, 
if  left  there,  would  cause  a  rough  surface  to  the 
casting,  this  sand  is  gently  blown  off  the  pattern  with 
a  small  hand-bellows.  After  the  one  half  of  the 
mould  is  so  far  prepared,  the  other  parts  of  the  pat- 
tern are  put  on,  in  cases  where  the  pattern  is  divided ; 
the  upper  box  is  then  laid  in  its  proper  place,  the 
hooks  fastened,  the  facing-sand  is  put  on ;  after 
which  the  common  sand  is  stamped  in  ;  in  short,  the 
same  operation  is  performed  as  previously  described 
for  the  lower  box.  When  the  pattern  is  simple  and 
smooth,  there  is  not  much  difficulty  in  adjusting  the 
traverses,  which  may  be  straight,  and  reach  with 
their  lower  edge  down  to  within  half  an  ir.-~h  of  the 
pattern.  If  the  pattern  is  not  smooth,  and  parts  of 
it  project  into  the  upper  box,  the  traverses  are  to  be 
cut  out  in  those  places  where  they  touch  the  relief 
parts  of  the  pattern.  For  these  reasons  wooden 
traverses  are  preferable  to  iron  ones,  because  they 
can  be  easily  fitted  to  any  pattern.  Many  boxes 
have  no  traverses  at  all ;  this  is  the  case  with  boxes 
of  less  than  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  square. 
Crates.—  Immediately  after  the  face-sand  is  put  in 


MOULDING.  37 

iLe  upper  box,  and  before  the  second  layer  is  thrown 
in,  preparations  are  made  for  the  gits,  gates  or  pas- 
sages for  the  metal.  This  is  done  by  setting  in  wooden 
pins,  very  much  tapered,  and  of  a  sufficient  length 
to  reach  above  the  edge  of  the  upper  box.  These 
pins  are  generally  made  of  wood,  and  are  of  a  great 
rariety  of  forms,  lengths,  and  thicknesses.  The 
setting  of  these  for  gits  is  a  nice  point,  and  requires 
some  discrimination  on  the  part  of  the  moulder; 
particularly  where  iron  is  to  be  cast,  and  where  the 
patterns  are  very  thin.  On  the  distribution  of  the 
gits  depends  in  a  great  measure. the  success  of  cast- 
ing. If  the  pattern  is  of  a  heavy  thick  form,  say 
more  than  half  an  inch  thick  in  its  thinnest  parts, 
and  its  surface  is  not  too  large,  one  gate  will  be  suf- 
ficient. In  proportion  as  the  surface  increases  or 
the  pattern  is  thinner,  the  number  of  passages  is  to 
be  increased.  In  most  instances  it  is  preferable  to 
have  the  gits  outside  the  pattern ;  but  this  always 
requires  a  somewhat  larger  flask,  for  which  reason 
this  rule  is  not  adhered  to.  Thin  plates  require  flat 
gits  of  a  very  oblong  form ;  mere  edges,  in  case  the 
gits  are  to  be  set  upon  the  plate  or  the  casting  itself. 
On  round  patterns,  wheels,  pulleys,  or  any  others 
of  that  description,  the  gits  must  always  be  set 
outside.  In  all  cases  there  is  to  be  an  air  or 
4 


£8     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

gas  gate,  which  is  always  set  upon  the  pattern 
directly,  whether  the  passages  are  inside  or  out- 
side of  the  latter.  For  very  light,  thin,  or  open 
ornamental  castings,  it  is  often  difficult  to  find 
the  proper  places  for  the  gits,  and  it  requires 
some  experience  to  decide,  at  first  sight,  where  to 
put  the  gates  on  a  new  pattern.  Frequently  more 
than  one  of  the  first  castings  of  a  new  pattern 
are  lost  on  this  account.  In  all  instances  it  is 
a  rule  to  put  the  gits  in  such  places  that  the 
metal  may  find  the  shortest  way  to  fill  the  mould ; 
where  the  metal,  in  passing  through  the  narrowest 
parts,  will  find  wider  and  heavier  channels  to  be 
filled,  so  that  the  partially  cooled  metal  may  unite 
again  in  the  heavier  parts  of  the  mould.  If  one 
passage  is  not  sufficient,  there  are  to  be  two  or  more : 
in  fact,  as  many  as  are  necessary  to  secure  success. 
The  fluid  metal  is  to  be  poured  into  all  the  gits  at 
once,  whatever  number  there  may  be,  so  as  to  fill  the 
mould  in  the  shortest  time,  and  promote  a  union  of 
the  metal  from  the  various  passages. 

When  boxes,  pattern,  and  gits  are  in  their  proper 
places,  the  flask  has  the  appearance  of  Figure  7. 
When  the  upper  box  is  well  filled  with  sand  and 
levelled,  the  hooks  are  unfastened,  and  the  top  box 
gently  lifted  by  one,  two,  or  more  men,  or,  which  ia 


safest,  by  means  of  a  crane.  The  box  is  then  set  on 
one  edge,  or  turned  edgeways  in  the  crane ;  the  pins 
for  the  gits  are  then  withdrawn,  and  the  tapering 
holes  are  cut  larger,  bell-inouth  shaped,  at  the  top 
of  the  flask.  The  gits  are  to  be  very  tapering  ana 
smooth,  to  allow  an  easy  passage  for  the  hot  metal, 
and  prevent  the  washing  down  of  loose  sand.  When 
the  upper  box  is  well  mended  and  secured,  and  ready 
to  be  put  on  again,  the  pattern  in  the  lower  box 
is  removed.  Before  this  can  be  done,  the  edges 
of  the  sand  all  around  the  pattern  are  wetted, 
which  is  done  with  a  swab,  or  with  a  paint-brush 
soaked  in  water,  and  pressed  gently  between  the 
fingers  while  running  it  over  the  mould.  In  that  way 
a  greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  water  may  be  thrown 
on  the  edges,  as  the  workman  may  find  it  necessary. 
The  sand  is  now  examined  with  the  finger  all  around 
the  pattern,  in  order  to  ascertain  if  it  is  of  a  uniform 
closeness.  If  too  loose,  so  as  not  to  resist  the  with- 


40  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
drawal  of  the  pattern  or  the  influence  of  the  hot 
metal,  it  is  pressed  down,  and  some  fresh  sand  worked 
in  with  the  trowel.  If  the  sand  around  the  pattern  is 
uniformly  close,  the  trowel  is  used  for  smoothing  the 
whole  surface,  and  then  the  pattern  is  withdrawn. 
To  withdraw  a  pattern  is  in  many  instances  a  deli- 
cate operation,  for  the  sand  will  more  or  less  adhere 
to  it  and  damage  the  mould,  in  case  the  pattern 
is  lifted  without  being  properly  liberated  from  the 
sand.  To  free  the  pattern  from  the  adherent 
sand,  the  lifting-screws  are  put  in.  after  which  it 
is  loosened  by  striking  it  gently  downward  with 
a  wooden  mallet.  In  lifting  it,  it  is  to  be  tapped 
sideways  against  one  of  the  corners  of  the  pattern,  or 
against  the  lifting-screws,  or  against  studs  made  for 
the  purpose. 

The  lifting-screws  are  sharp-pointed  and  tapered, 
and  of  a  coarse  thread  when  the  pattern  is  of  wood. 
In  metal  patterns  the  thread  is  cut  into  the  pattern, 
fitting  the  screw.  Richly  ornamented  or  carved 
patterns,  or  those  of  complicated  machinery,  are 
seldom  lifted  without  breaking  more  or  less  of  the 
mould,  and  damaging  it.  The  moulder  repairs  such 
damages  by  putting  some  water  on  with  the  swab,  and 
adding  as  much  sand  as  appears  to  him  sufficient  for 
filling  the  break.  The  more  prominent  parts  receive 


MOULDING.  41 

a  touch  of  the  swab.  The  pattern,  when  removed, 
is  well  cleaned  by  means  of  a  dry  brush,  and  laid  in 
the  sand  again,  in  its  former  bed.  With  simple  pat- 
terns this  latter  operation  is  not  necessary :  a  skilful 
moulder  can  repair  a  damaged  mould  without  resort- 
ing to  this  expedient.  In  ornamental  moulds  there 
is,  however,  no  chance  of  successfully  repairing 
a  break.  The  pattern  is  once  more  pressed  down  to 
its  former  site,  and  then  withdrawn,  the  mould 
generally  being  then  found  to  be  perfect. 

Blackening  the  mould. — By  shaking  a  small  bag 
filled  with  blackening  or  ground  charcoal,  over  the 
mould,  it  is  covered  with  a  thin  film  of  coal-dust. 
This  dust  is  to  be  distributed  as  evenly  as  possible. 
If  fresh  sand  has  been  used  for  facing,  the  dust  will 
adhere  to  the  sand,  and  the  pattern,  after  being  well 
brushed  over,  may  be -laid  in  again  to  smooth  the 
dust  down.  The  sand  around  the  pattern  is  smoothed 
with  the  trowel.  If  the  mould  is  faced  with  old  sand, 
the  dust  is  not  likely  to  adhere,  and  may  be  blown 
off,  which  is  to  be  avoided.  In  this  case  a  coating  of 
fine  meal  is  given  to  the  mould ;  any  meal  will  answer 
for  this  purpose,  either  rice,  corn,  or  pease-meal. 
If  meal  has  been  used  before  the  dust  is  put  on,  it  is 
not  advisable  to  put  the  pattern  again  in  the  mould, 
until  a  heavy  coating  of  dust  has  been  given  over  th» 


42  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
meal.  Care  must  be  taken  in  using  coal-dust  or  meal, 
as  both  cause  dull  castings  if  used  to  excess.  The 
best  and  smoothest  castings  are  made  where  the 
facing  consists  of  a  thin  coating  of  fresh  sand,  and 
with  as  little  blackening  as  possible  brought  upon  it 
Skilful  moulders  will  however  succeed  in  putting  in 
the  pattern  again,  whether  they  have  been  using  meal 
or  not.  When  the  sand  is  well  smoothed  down,  and 
the  pattern  laid  in  again,  the  channels  or  passages 
are  scooped  out  of  the  parting  surface.  The  pins 
which  formed  the  gits,  have  given  an  impression  in 
the  sand  of  the  lower  box.  Between  these  impres- 
sions and  the  pattern,  channels  are  dug  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  or  more  deep  :  where  these  channels 
join  the  pattern,  they  are  seldom  more  than  of  the 
above-mentioned  thickness,  but  may  be  thicker  and 
narrower  towards  the  gate ;  the  channels  must  be 
thinner  at  the  pattern  than  anywhere  else,  to  make 
them  break  close  to  the  pattern,  when  broken  off. 
If  one  of  such  channels  is  not  deemed  sufficient,  two 
or  more  may  be  cut  from  the  same  gate ;  the  chan- 
nel also  may  be  widened  towards  the  pattern, 
to  afford  a  sufficient  inlet  for  the  metal,  and  may 
be  swabbed,  to  give  greater  security  against  being 
washed  away  by  the  hot  metal.  After  this  is  done, 
the  pattern  is  taken  out  once  more,  the  upper  box 


MOULDING.  43 

put  on  gently,  the  hooks  fastened,  and  the  mould  is 
ready  for  casting. 

When  parts  of  the  pattern  project  into  the  upper 
box,  or  the  pattern  is  divided,  the  same  process  is 
to  be  followed  with  the  upper,  as  has  been  done  with 
the  lower  box.  In  this  case  the  upper  part  of  the 
box  is  to  be  covered  with  a  board  after  the  gate-pins 
are  withdrawn,  and  the  box  laid  upon  its  back,  sc 
as  to  have  that  part  of  the  pattern  uppermost,  which 
is  to  be  withdrawn.  The  process  of  lifting  the  pat- 
tern is  here  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  lower  box, 
except  that  more  caution  is  required  in  patching  up 
damages  than  in  the  lower  box,  to  prevent  the 
dropping  of  sand  when  putting  this  box  on  the  other. 

When  a  pattern  is  fastened  to  the  pattern  board, 
it  is  lifted  out  before  the  upper  box  can  be  filled 
with  sand.  In  this  case  the  upper  box  is  filled 
over  a  smooth  board,  well  polished  with  the  trowel, 
and  put  on  without  further  preparation.  It  is  pre- 
ferable in  this  instance  to  bear  the  upper  box  down 
by  weights  of  pig-iron,  instead  of  hooks.  Thia 
mode  of  moulding  is  easy  and  works  fast,  but  is  only 
applicable  to  very  tapered  and  low  patterns. 

Composition  of  Moulding -sand. — Although  mould- 
ing in  green-sand  at  first  sight  appears  to  be  so 
limple,  yet  great  difficulties,  and  often  failures,  may 


44  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
be  encountered  by  not  observing  certain  practical 
rules.  The  composition  of  the  moulding-sand  is  of 
the  first  importance.  If  the  sand  is  too  strong,  that 
is,  if  it  contains  too  much  clay,  it  is  only  fit  for  small 
or  very  thin  castings.  In  this  instance,  care  is  to  be 
taken  not  to  make  it  too-wet,  for  it  absorbs  a  great 
deal  of  water  without  "showing  dampness,  but  it  is 
soon  found  to  be  too  damp  for  casting.  Such  fat, 
strong  sand  may  be  improved  by  burning  it,  or  by 
continual  use.  It  may  also  be  improved  by  a  mix- 
ture of  charcoal-dust,  coke-dust,  or  anthracite-dust. 
If  too  much  coal-dust  is  used  to  make  the  sand  work 
well,  the  castings  are  apt  to  be  rough.  Such  strong 
sand  is  to  be  avoided  for  heavy  castings.  The  heavier 
the  cast,  the  poorer  and  coarser  the  sand  is  to  be. 
Fine  moulding-sand  is  liable  to  the  same  objections 
as  strong  sand ;  it  works  well  in  small  moulds,  rf 
mixed  with  charcoal-dust,  but  it  will  not  do  for  heavy 
castings.  A  large  mass  of  hot  metal  generates  a 
great  quantity  of  steam  in  the  moist  sand,  also  coin- 
pounds  of  carbon,  which  gases  require  vent :  open 
coarse  sand  is  necessary  to  give  that  vent.  Core- 
sand  is  always  coarser  then  moulding-sand,  and 
seldom  fit  to  be  mixed  with  it.  Where  many  cores 
are  used,  whether  large  or  small,  it  is  advisable  to 
carry  the  castings  to  some  spot  in  or  out  of  the 


MOULDING.  45 

foundry,  where  the  cores  may  be  withdrawn  and 
broken  without  their  sand  mingling  with  the  mould- 
ing-sand of  the  foundry.  A  lot  of  good,  well  pre- 
paied  old  sand,  is  of  great  value  in  a  foundry;  its 
proper  aggregation  ought  to  be  kept  up  by  daily 
additions  of  fresh  sand,  or  js  liable  to  become  too 
weak  in  the  course  of  time.  After  each  casting 
the  sand  is  to  be  wetted  with  as  much  water  as  is 
required  to  give  it  the  dampness  necessary  for 
its  adhesion.  The  amount  of  water  differs  in  almost 
every  instance,  and  can  be  determined  only  by 
experience.  All  the  sand  of  a  foundry  ought  to  be 
riddled  at  least  once  a  week,  to  free  it  from  chips  of 
wood,  pieces  of  iron,  lumps  of  burnt  sand,  and  similar 
matters,  which  produce  inconveniences  in  founding. 
If  green  sand  is  rammed  too  tightly,  especially  for 
large  castings,  it  is  frequently  broken,  and  bad 
porous  castings  are  the  consequence.  This  happen? 
because  the  confined  steam  or  gases  cannot  escape 
through  the  sand,  and  in  rushing  over  the  face  tear 
it  down.  The  running  in  of  the  piercer,  to  make 
artificial  air-holes,  is  in  such  cases  of  great  service, 
but  is  almost  ineffectual  in  large  or  thick  castings. 
It  needs  open,  porous  sand,  to  make  the  best  kind 
of  vent.  Vent-holes  pierced  or  left  purposely,  will 
never  replace  the  advantages  of  open  sand.  If  the 


40  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
sand  is  not  rammed  tight  enough,  the  liquid,  metal 
is  apt  to  break  down  all  the  projections  in  the  sand, 
and  by  its  fluid  pressure  cause  unevenness  and  swell- 
ing of  the  mould,  and  in  consequence  imperfect  cast- 
ings. Each  kind  of  sand,  and  each  form  of  pattern, 
requires  a  different  treatment  to  insure  success.- 
Too  loose  open  sand,  and  too  much  coal  or  blacken- 
ing, will  make  rough,  imperfect,  dull  castings.  Fine 
or  strong  sand  is  liable  to  cause  boiling,  explosions, 
or  porous  castings.  Many  of  the  difficulties  may  be 
removed  by  a  skilful  moulder ;  still  it  cannot  be 
expected  of  him  to  make  smooth  sharp  castings  in 
coarse  sand,  or  in  sand  which  contains  too  much 
coal.  The  skill  of  a  green-sand  moulder  is  more 
frequently  put  to  the  test,  than  that  of  any  other 
artisan.  Every  different  form  of  pattern,  different 
Band,  different  coal,  different  metal,  and  different  locali- 
ty, makes  it  necessary  to  modify  his  mode  of  working 
Division  of  labour. — The  most  successful  way  of 
overcoming  the  practical  difficulties  of  green-sand 
moulding,  is  to  divide  the  business  into  branches,  so 
that  each  different  kind  of  casting  may  be  carried  on 
in  its  own  appropriate  locality,  and  with  its  own 
proper  workmen  and  materials.  The  sand  suitable 
for  heavy  machine  castings,  is  not  fit  for  moulding 
small  cog-wheels,  less  so  for  hollow-ware,  and  still 


MOULDING.  41 

loss  proper  for  ornamental  carved  castings.  The 
moulder  who  has  been  trained  to  small  articles,  is 
hardly  able  to  do  heavy  machine  work ;  and  those 
moulders  who  have  been  used  to  moulding  heavy 
articles,  cannot  at  once  compete  with  moulders  of 
light  castings.  To  work  successfully  in  green-sand, 
it  is  almost  absolutely  necessary  to  divide  the  articles 
of  manufacture.  There  ought  to  be  a  separate  shop, 
and  separate  hands,  and  particular  sand  for  "heavy 
machine-frames;  a  division  for  small  machine-cast- 
ings ;  a  separate  foundry  for  hollow- ware  and  stoves ; 
and  another  for  casting  ornaments  and  railings,  for 
brass  and  for  bronze.  Each  branch  of  these  articles 
of  founding  requires  peculiar  conditions  under  which 
it  can  be  most  perfectly  done,  and  carried  on  with 
the  largest  profit.  The  author  has  observed  an  instance 
where  a  moulder  had  been  making,  for  eight  conse- 
cutive years,  a  certain  kind  of  flat-bottomed  pot,  with 
great  success.  No  other  moulder  could  earn  half  as 
much  on  the  same  article,  nor  make  it  equal  in  qua- 
lity. This  moulder  could  not  make  anything  else 
but  that  pot;  he  failed  in  everything  else  he  tried. 
Moulding  generally  is  a  very  particular  art,  but 
green-sand  moulding  more  so  than  any  other  kind  of 
moulding,  if  we  wish  to  economize  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  business. 


48      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

Moulding  in  open  sand  is  frequently  resorted  to, 
to  avoid  the  making  of  flasks.  It  is  in  no  way 
cheaper  than  moulding  in  boxes,  and  the  castings 
are  always  rough  and  uncouth ;  but  there  are  instances 
where  it  cannot  be  avoided.  To  mould  in  open 
sand,  a  particular  bed  is  prepared  in  the  foundry. 
The  ground  below  it  is  dug  out  to  the  depth  of  two 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  foundry  floor.  This  hol- 
low is  to  be  as  large  in  extent  as  the  largest  mould 
to  be  made;  a  little  larger  does  no  harm.  It  is  filled 
with  coarse  charcoal,  coke,  or  anthracite-dust,  or  even 
with  small,  say  half-inch  pebbles,  in  the  bottom. 
Upon  this  bed  of  open  matter,  two  inches  thick  of 
the  coarsest  mould,  or  river  sand,  is  riddled,  and 
upon  this  common  moulding-sand  is  sifted.  When 
the  bed  is  so  far  prepared,  two  straight  edge-rules 
are  put  edgeways,  one  on  each  long  side  of  the  bed. 
These  rules  are  adjusted  by  a  level,  so  as  exactly  to 
range  with  each  other,  as  well  as  with  a  horizontal 
line.  If  now  an  edge-rule  is  drawn  slanting  ovei  these 
edges,  it  of  course  will  cut  the  sand  between  the 
rules  down  where  it  is  too  high,  and  will  fill  any 
cavities  there  may  be.  As  this  surface  of  the  sand 
will  still  be  rough,  even  after  this  levelling  is  accom- 
plished, some  fine  sand  is  now  sifted  over  the  whole 
surface,  and  a  long  straight  wooden  roller,  of  about 


MOULDING.  49 

nix  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and  long  enough  to 
reach  over  both  edge-rules  in  the  ground,  is  rolled 
gently  backwards  and  forwards  over  the  bed,  care 
being  taken  that  the  edges  of  the  rules  are  clean,  and 
that  the  roller  never  misses  them.  This  operation 
will  smooth  the  surface  of  the  bed ;  and  in  case  the 
sand  is  not  considered  sufficiently  solid,  some  more 
fine  sand  is  sifted  on,  and  the  roller  used  to  press  it 
down.  This  process  may  be  repeated  as  often  as  it 
is  found  necessary,  until  the  sand  is  sufficiently  com- 
pact to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  fluid  metal.  After 
finishing  the  bed,  the  rules  are  removed.  Upon  this 
level  bed  the  pattern  is  laid;  if  it  has  any  projections, 
these  are  turned  downwards  and  pressed  into  the  sand ; 
the  largest  part  of  the  pattern  however  is  left  above 
the  sand,  particularly  if  the  pattern  forms  a  plate. 
Around  the  pattern,  which  is  to  have  a  straight  sur- 
face, some  sand  is  piled  by  hand  to  form  a  dam  all 
around  the  pattern,  and  flush  with  it.  After  the 
pattern  is  withdrawn  the  sand-dam  forms  the  en- 
closure, and  must  be  strong  enough  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  the  fluid  metal.  On  a  convenient  side 
of  the  mould  the  channel  is  elevated ;  that  is,  a 
place  on  the  top  of  the  dam  is  made  broad  enough 
to  receive  the  fluid  metal,  and  distribute  it  gently 
over  the  mould.  If  there  are  any  cores  in  the 


50  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET 
mould,  these  are  to  be  held  down  by  pieces  of 
iron,  to  prevent  their  being  lifted  by  the  fluid 
metal.  After  casting,  the  hot  congealed  metal  should 
be  covered  by  a  thin  coating  of  sand,  to  prevent 
its  radiating  too  much  heat  into  the  work-room. 
This  kind  of  moulding  is  hardly  ever  used  but  for  the 
roughest  kind  of  iron  castings ;  it  is  seldom  applied 
to  other  metals.  It  is  mostly  in  use  for  foundry 
utensils,  as  plates  and  platforms  for  the  loam-mould- 
er, furnace-plates,  grate-bars,  and  the  like  articles. 
Plates  of  any  size  and  form  may  be  made  without 
pattern :  the  edges  are  then  formed  by  rulers,  and 
the  corners  by  wooden  squares  of  the  desired  angle. 
The  thickness  of  such  plates  is  determined  by  the 
amount  of  metal  poured  into  the  mould.  Rough 
flooring  plates,  rough  railing,  and  other  indifferent 
castings,  are  sometimes  made  in  open  sand. 

Moulding  in  one  box. — In  castings  which  are  to 
be  made  from  smooth  patterns,  and  where  no  great 
accuracy  is  required,  the  pattern  may  be  sunk  into 
the  foundry  floor  and  covered  by  a  box.  Every 
foundry  floor  is  considered  to  consist  of  sand,  at 
least  a  couple  of  feet  deep.  A  ditch  is  dug,  or  a 
place  as  large  as  the  pattern,  and  every  coarse  piece 
of  burnt  sand,  nails,  iron,  &c.,  removed,  by  riddling 
the  sand.  If  the  place  is  too  dry,  some  water  is 


MOULDING.  51 

thrown  over  it,  and  if  too  damp,  dry  sand  is  thrown 
over  until  it  is  so  far  elevated  that  the  moisture  will 
not  injure  the  casting.  The  place  is  to  be  level. 
The  pattern  to  be  moulded  is  laid  upon  the  sand 
and  pressed  into  it,  and  the  sand  worked  against 
the  pattern  by  hand.  The  filling-up  around  the 
pattern  is  to  be  flush  with  the  pattern,  and  to  extend 
far  enough  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  fluid  metal. 
Upon  this  mould,  which  forms  the  lower  box,  the 
upper  box  is  laid,  and  kept  in  its  place  by  four  or 
more  wood-poles,  driven  around  the  box  into  the 
ground.  This  upper  box  is  managed  just  as  any 
other  upper  box,  with  only  this  difference,  that  weights 
are  used  to  bear  down  upon  it  and  resist  the  fluid 
pressure  of  the  metal.  If  a  pattern  is  large,  and 
there  are  no  means  in  the  foundry  to  lift  a  heavy 
box,  and  if  the  upper  side  of  the  pattern  is  smooth, 
the  mould  may  be  covered  with  iron  frames  in  the 
form  of  open  network,  cast  in  open  sand,  and  covered 
with  a  coating  of  coarse  loam,  well  dried.  By  join- 
ing the  edges  closely  where  these  plates  meet,  a  cast- 
ing may  be  made  just  as  good  as  if  an  upper  box  had 
been  used.  Castings  made  in  these  kinds  of  moulds 
are  never  so  good  as  if  made  in  the  regular  way  in 
two  hexes ;  moulding  in  this  manner  is  admissible 
only  where  necessity  compels,  and  quality  is  no  desi- 


52  MOULDER'S  AM  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDI*. 
deratum.  It  is  in  rather  more  general  use  than 
there  is  need  for.  In  a  foundry  where  large  machine 
castings  are  made,  it  requires  much  room  and  co-n 
siderable  dead  capital  to  keep  a  sufficient  stock  of 
flasks,  but  the  interest  on  capital  thus  invested  is 
easily  paid  for  by  the  facilities  and  security  afforded 
in  moulding,  and  the  better  quality  of  the  castings. 
Moulding  in  the  floor  of  the  foundry  answers  for 
some  kinds  of  pig-iron  better  than  for  others. 

Moulding  of  a  Cog-wheel.  —  Heavy  green-sand 
mouldings  are  very  frequent,  and  it  will  not  be  amiss 
to  describe  the  moulding  of  a  large  piece.  We  will 
select  the  moulding  of  a  large  face-cogwheel.  Some 
of  the  wheel-patterns  are  divided  into  arms  and  cir- 
cumference, which  is  on  many  accounts  preferable 
to  other  methods,  but  particularly  on  account  of 
exactness.  A  wheel  cast  to  its  spokes  is  never  round, 
as  the  arcs  between  the  arms  stretch  in  cooling.  We 
will  adopt  a  wheel  with  arms,  and  these  arms  divided 
on  account  of  their  cross  section. 

Fig.  8. 


Figure  8  is  a  vertical  section  of  a  flask  filled  with 


MOULDING.  53 

sand,  and  ready  for  lifting  the  upper  box.  The  dif- 
ferent shades  of  the  sand  indicate  what  belongs  to 
the  upper  and  what  to  the  lower  box.  In  a  wheel 
of  this  kind  the  face  of  the  wheel  is  square,  as  a 
matter  of  necessity ;  no  tapering  is  permitted,  as  in 
patterns  of  other  descriptions.  The  inside  of  the 
rim  may  be  tapered,  and  as  the  spokes  of  the  wheel 
cannot  be  lifted  from  the  lower  box,  only  the  spokes 
are  divided  so  as  to  lift  one  half  of  each  with  the 
upper  box.  The  lifting  of  the  upper  box  is  now  not 
difficult,  since  a  part  of  the  pattern  is  carried  with  it. 
The  part  of  the  pattern  which  belongs  to  the  upper 
box,  is  fastened  to  the  box  by  the  screws  A,  A,  which 
pass  through  the  sand,  and  are  fastened  to  planks 
on  the  top  of  the  box.  These  screws  are  drawn 
tight,  so  as  to  leave  no  space  for  any  motion  of  the 
pattern.  The  half  pattern  in  the  lower  box  is  with- 
drawn, by  lifting  it  perfectly  vertical  and  in  all  its 
parts  at  once.  This  work  is  done  by  several  men ; 
ten  or  more  hands  are  often  required  to  perform  this 
part  successfully.  While  the  pattern  is  being  raised, 
the  men  lift  with  one  hand  on  iron  pins  firmly  screwed 
into  the  pattern,  and  strike  the  pattern  gently  but 
in  rapid  succession,  so  as  to  loosen  the  adhering  sand. 
Before  the  pattern  is  lifted  the  damages  done  by  re- 
moving the  upper  box  are  repaired,  which  is  easily  ao- 


54  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
complished  by  using  some  damp  sand  and  the  trowel. 
In  ease  the  sand  is  not  very  porous,  it  is  pierced  close 
to  the  pattern,  to  make  air  holes  for  the  escape  of 
the  gases.  The  number  of  holes  required  de- 
pends entirely  on  the  quality  of  the  sand ;  close, 
strong,  or  fine  sand  requires  more  vent-holes  than 
that  which  is  coarse  and  open.  If  the  pattern  in 
the  lower  box  is  smooth  and  varnished,  the  swab 
may  be  used  liberally,  but  if  not,  or  if  the  wood 
is  porous  or  coarse,  but  little  water  is  used,  and 
the  pattern  is  to  be  withdrawn  as  soon  as  possible. 
It  is  altogether  a  good  rule  in  moulding  to  work  fast, 
and  withdraw  the  pattern  from  the  sand  as  soon  as 
possible,  particularly  a  wooden  one.  It  is  no  ad- 
vantage to  a  metal  pattern  to  remain  long  in  the 
sand ;  no  pattern  ought  to  remain  there  over  night. 
It  is  almost  unavoidable  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
mould,  particularly  at  the  periphery  of  a  cog-wheel ; 
the  sand  between  the  teeth  will  be  always  more 
or  less  broken.  To  repair  these  injuries,  one  or 
more  single  teeth  are  generally  supplied  by  the  pat- 
tern-maker, of  which  two  at  once  may  be  set  in  and 
the  sand  between  the  two  filled  up  by  means  of  a 
long  sleeker.  A  preferable  mode  is  to  have  a  seg- 
ment of  the  wheel,  of  at  least  three  teeth ;  such  a 
segment  may  be  easily  withdrawn,  and  gives  more 


MOULDING.  55 

correct  divisions.  To  work  with  loose  teeth  requires 
great  experience  not  to  injure  the  division  or  pitch 
of  the  wheel.  Other  parts  of  the  mould  are  generally 
simple,  and  if  any  injury  is  done  it  is  not  difficult  to 
repair  such  with  damp  sand,  by  means  of  the  trowel 
or  sleeker.  A  long,  well  made,  and  polished  sleeker 
is  of  great  service  in  moulding  wheels.  The  mould 
is  well  polished  over,  after  the  pattern  is  withdrawn 
and  every  broken  part  mended ;  it  then  receives 
a  slight  sprinkling  of  charcoal-dust,  and  is  again 
polished. 

When  the  lower  box  is  finished,  the  upper  box, 
which  is  still  fastened  to  and  suspended  in  the  crane, 
may  be  turned  over  and  laid  upon  its  back.  If  the 
box  is  too  heavy,  or  the  means  insufficient  to  turn 
the  box,  it  is  left  suspended  in  the  crane  as  it  is, 
face  down.  Some  temporary  supports  however  ought 
to  be  erected  below  the  box,  to  hold  it  in  case  the 
chain  of  the  crane  should  break,  which  would  en- 
danger the  life  of  the  workman  engaged  in  repairing 
injuries.  All  the  work  to  be  done  at  the  upper  box  is 
in  this  case  accomplished  from  below  the  box.  While 
one  workman  is  below,  first  mending  and  wetting,  and 
then  watching  the  mould,  others  unscrew  the  pins 
from  above,  and  in  case  there  is  any  danger  of  sand 
breaking  loose,  the  unscrewing  is  stopped,  and  the 


56  MOULDER'S  AND  POUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
doubtful  places  soaked  with  water,  and  firmly  pressed. 
In  many  instances  hooks  of  small  wire,  wet  n« 
clay-water,  are  stuck  around  the  edges  of  the  pat- 
tern in  the  sand.  The  pattern,  after  every  injury 
has  been  repaired,  is  removed,  the  mould  polished, 
and  the  upper  box  is  then  ready  to  be  put  on  the 
lower.  In  this  instance  no  coal-dust  can  be  used  in 
polishing  the  mould;  the  casting,  therefore,  will  be 
rough  at  the  upper  side.  In  all  cases  of  divided 
patterns  the  better  plan  is  to  turn  the  top  box  upside 
down,  which  gives  an  equal  chance  to  the  upper  as 
to  the  lower  box ;  the  proper  work  can  then  be  per- 
formed on  it.  To  turn  a  box  upside  down,  requires 
a  suspension  of  it  on  two  points  or  swivels ;  the  Hx 
must  of  course  be  strongly  made.  In  lifting,  too 
much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to  the  uniform  and 
vertical  raising  of  the  box ;  the  least  twisting  of  it 
will  break  the  sand  and  cause  injury  to  the  mould. 
Boxes  made  too  weak  are  very  apt  to  bend,  and 
often  cause  the  falling  out  of  the  sand  altogether. 
After  the  upper  box  is  well  repaired,  the  gits  ready, 
and  the  channels  cut  in  the  lower  mould,  the  flask 
may  be  closed.  Hooks  are  useless  on  large  boxes ; 
the  only  means  to  keep  the  upper  box  down  against 
the  pressure  of  the  fluid  metal,  is  by  weights  or 
gcrews.  Planks  are  laid  over  it  to  prevent  damage  to 


MOULDING.  57 

the  mould,  and  the  weight,  which  may  consist  of 
broken  pig-iron  or  any  other  heavy  inetal,'is  gently 
laid  upon  these  planks ;  in  this  way  the  pressure  is 
more  uniformly  distributed.  The  gits  to  a  wheel 
should  be  between  two  spokes,  near  the  periphery, 
and  two  or  three  channels  cut  from  each  git,  either 
to  the  spokes,  or,  preferably,  to  the  spokes  and  rim. 
For  a  large  wheel  there  Are  to  be  at  least  two  gits — • 
three  would  be  better.  There  are  also* to  be  some 
flow-gates,  one  in  the  centre  and  two  or  more  at  the 
circumference.  The  gits  should  to  be  large,  say 
two  inches  wide,  and  also  have  a  wide  trumpet-shaped 
mouth.  The  channels  which  conduct  the  fluid  metal 
from  the  gits  to  the  mould,  are  to  be  smaller  in  section 
than  the  git ;  for  in  pouring  the  metal  the  git  is  to 
be  kept  full,  to  avoid  the  passing  in  of  impurities,  as 
coal,  dross,  or  sand,  which  may  float  on  the  metal ; 
such  impurities  would  injure  the  casting  if  permitted 
to  pass  into  the  mould. 

Failures  from  some  unforeseen  difficulty  frequently 
take  place  in  the  moulding  and  casting  of  large  pat- 
terns. Fine  strong  sand  is  never  to  be  used  for 
heavy  mouldings  in  green-sand ;  it  invariably  causes 
boiling,  or  at  best,  causes  the  castings  to  be  porous 
and  full  of  holes.  If  fine  sand  is  mixed  with  much 
coal-powder,  it  is  liable  to  be  too  weak  to  resist  th« 


58  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
pressure  of  the  metal,  or  even  the  drawing  of  the 
pattern.  It  requires  too  much  coal  to  make  fine 
sand  porous  enough  for  heavy  castings.  Coarse 
open  sand  is  the  best  for  heavy  castings  where  a  large 
quantity  of  metal  is  poured  in  a  mould;  such  sand 
however  makes  rough  castings,  which  can  be  remedied 
in  various  ways.  The  mixing  of  coal-powder  with 
coarse  sand  is  not  to  be  recommended,  for  it  makes 
the  sand  too  weak,  and  causes  the  generation  of  too 
much  gas.  Open  porous  sand,  free  from  coal,  can 
be  used  to  advantage,  if  the  pattern  is  covered  with  » 
a  layer  of  fine  sand,  say  one  quarter  of  an  inch  thick, 
or  such  thickness  as  is  sufficient  to  resist  the  pres- 
sure of  the  iron  ;  a  very  thin  coating  is  in  most  cases 
sufficient.  Such  a  coating  of  fine  sand,  well  dusted 
and  polished,  will  make  smooth  castings.  Coal  is  ' 
not  of  much  use  in  sand  for  heavy  castings,  for  if 
the  iron  retains  its  heat  long,  as  it  does  in  ponderous 
masses,  it  destroys  the  coal  nearest  to  it,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  casting  assumes  a  peculiar 
roughness.  The  only  coal  which  resists  the  influence 
of  hot  iron  in  large  masses,  is  plumbago  or  anthra- 
cite, but  these,  if  they  are  so  fine  as  to  make  a 
smooth  surface,  are  too  fine  to  admit  the  free  escape 
of  the  gases,  and  if  such  carbonaceous  matter  is 
coarse,  it  causes  as  rough  castings  as  coarse  sand. 


MOULDING.  59 

In  practice,  coal  mixed  with  the  sand  is  advantage- 
ous, but  it  is  not  to  he  in  excess,  and  coke  or  char- 
coal-dust are  to  be  preferred  on  account  of  their 
peculiar  porosity.  But  in  heavy  castings,  coal  can 
never  prevent  the  metal  from  penetrating  between 
the  grains  of  sand ;  and  if  coal  is  of  no  service  on 
the  facing,  it  is  of  none  in  the  body  of  the  mould. 
Heavy  castings  are  therefore  best  made  in  dried 
sand  or  loam,  as  we  shall  hereafter  describe.  Ma- 
chine frames  of  a  large  body  of  metal,  or  of  little 
importance,  may  be  moulded  in  green-sand;  but 
frames  which  are  to  be  strong,  wheels,  or  beams, 
ought  to  be  cast  in  dry  sand,  for  the  unequal  shrink- 
age of  iron  in  wet  sand,  caused  by  the  moisture,  is  very 
apt  to  impair  the  strength  of  a  casting. 

Mouldings  of  more  than  two  boxes,  are  not  so  fre- 
quent, and  are  generally  avoided  in  moulding  machine 
frames.  Many  a  complicated  pattern  may  be 
moulded  in  two  boxes,  if  properly  managed.  If  no 
division  of  a  pattern  can  be  devisnd  to  meet  all  the 
difficulties,  the  moulding  with  cores  is  resorted  to,  to 
meet  the  emergency.  We  will  illustrate  this  in  one 
instance.  Figure  9  represents  a  flask  in  which  a 
pulley  is  moulded.  The  pattern  of  the  pulley  is  di- 
vided at  the  dotted  line.  After  the  lower  box  is 
filled  and  turned,  the  sand  is  cut  out  around  the 


GO      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  OUIDK. 


circumference  as  indicated,  the  surface  of  the  sand 
smoothed  and  parting-sand  sprinkled  on,  which  ia 
carefully  brushed  or  blown  off  the  pattern.  The 
other  or  upper  part  of  the  pattern  is  now  laid  down, 
and  a  core  of  fresh  moulding-sand  pressed  carefully 
into  the  groove  of  the  pulley,  in  the  form  as  indi- 
cated. This  core  is  filled  flush  with  the  pattern, 
and  slanted  towards  the  edge  of  the  box.  It  is  well 
polished,  covered  with  parting- sand,  and  then  the 
upper  box  put  on  and  moulded.  When  both  boxes 
are  filled,  the  flask  is  covered  with  a  board  and 
turned  upside  down,  the  drag-box  is  then  lifted  off 
first,  and  the  lower  half  of  the  pattern  removed. 
After  this  the  flask  is  once  more  closed  and  turned, 
putting  it  this  time  on  its  bottom  part.  The  upper 
box  is  now  lifted,  and  the  other  half  of  the  pattern 
removed.  While  turning  the  box,  and  lifting  the 
pattern,  the  very  brittle  round  core  of  green-sand 
is  here  always  supported,  without  danger  of  its 
breaking.  In  a  similar  manner  many  complicated 


MOULDING.  61 

patterns  may  be  moulded,  by  simply  putting  in  cores 
of  this  kind.  Where  green  cores  cannot  be  applied, 
dry  cores  must  be  used,  and  the  spaces  for  such  pro- 
vided for  in  the  pattern  ;  but  of  these  hereafter. 

Small  articles  of  machinery  require  in  many 
instances  very  skilful  workmen,  and  a  dexterous 
handling  of  the  patterns.  There  is  no  branch  of 
mechanics  where  more  perfect  castings  are  required 
and  made,  than  for  spinning  machines.  These  cast- 
ings are  to  be  true,  smooth,  sound,  and  malleable,  con- 
ditions which  are  not  easily  effected.  To  succeed 
well,  it  requires  particular  sand,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  coal  mixed  with  it,  and  workmen  who  are 
experienced  in  that  kind  of  work.  Many  advantages, 
however,  may  be  given  to  the  moulder  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  a  pattern.  If  a  small  face-wheel  is  to  be 
moulded,  and  the  teeth  are  to  be  parallel,  it  ia 
difficult  to  mould  such  a  pattern.  If  however  a  ring 
of  lead  is  cast  around  the  wheel,  so  that  each 
space  between  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  is  occupied 
by  a  lead  tooth,  and  the  wheel  may  be  drawn 
through  the  lead  without  difficulty,  the  moulding 
of  such  a  small  wheel  is  rendered  comparatively 
easy,  by  laying  the  lead  ring  upon  the  sand 
around  the  wheel,  when  the  weight  of  the  lead  will 
hold  the  sand  down,  which  otherwise  is  apt  to  fol- 
6 


62  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
low  the  wheel,  particularly  that  portion  between  the 
teeth.  In  moulding  small  machinery  of  iron,  it  is 
not  so  much  the  smoothness  of  the  castings  which 
is  to  be  considered,  as  the  soundness  of  the  metal ; 
for  this  reason,  the  sand  of  such  a  foundry  will  beai 
and  requires  more  coal-dust  in  admixture,  than  other 
foundry  sand. 

Ornamental  Moulding. — The  moulding  of  orna- 
ments and  railing  is  a  subject  of  some  interest, 
besides  being  a  branch  of  the  fine  arts.  Railing  of 
simple  forms,  with  one  side  smooth,  may  be  cast  in 
open  sand ;  but  there  is  the  objection  against  it  that 
open  castings,  made  of  the  same  metal,  are  never  so 
strong  as  those  cast  in  flasks.  There  is  no  economy 
in  casting  railing  in  open  sand.  For  coarse  railing, 
open  porous  sand  is  used,  containing  a  good  portion 
of  coal.  Here  we  have  to  remember  that  coal  causes 
faint  dull  castings;  the  outlines  are  generally  imper- 
fectly developed.  Carved  work  or  sharp  outlines 
can  never  be  expected  to  be  good  if  too  much  coal  is 
used,  either  mixed  with  the  sand,  or  dusted  on.  In 
ornamental  moulding,  it  is  not  generally  the  strength 
of  the  metal  which  is  the  most  valuable,  but  it  is  the 
perfect  representation  of  the  pattern  which  is  desir- 
able. Sharp  outlines  and  smooth  castings  are  the 
object  of  the  moulder  in  this  case.  Some  coal  mixed 


MOULDING.  G3 

wit1  the  sand,  is  necessary,  but  it  ought  to  be  as 
little  as  possible.  To  secure  sharp  castings,  the  fac- 
ing of  the  mould  is  made  of  fresh  fine  sand ;  a  layer 
of  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  thick  is  sufficient,  and  this 
dusted  with  fine  dust  made  of  oak  or  hickory  charcoal. 
Ornamental  work  always  is  and  can  be  sufficiently 
tapered  to  leave  the  sand  readily,  and  if  the  pattern 
is  made  of  metal,  and  well  polished,  it  may  be  re- 
peatedly laid  in  the  mould,  and  all  imperfections 
of  the  mould  may  be  repaired  to  the  most  minute 
correctness.  Dusting  the  facing  of  the  mould  is  the 
very  last  operation ;  every  damage  is  to  be  repaired 
with  fresh  sand,  and  every  line  of  the  mould  is  to  be 
eorrect  before  the  dust  is  put  on.  There  is  no  more 
coal-dust  shaken  over  the  mould,  than  is  just  suffi- 
cient to  make  a  smooth  casting.  Pease-meal  or  any 
other  meal  is  inadmissible  in  ornamental  moulding; 
it  is  injurious  to  the  sharp  outlines  of  the  casting. 
Common  pannels  of  railing  are  generally  smooth  on 
one  side,  and  may  be  cast  in  wooden  flasks;  but 
where  both  sides  of  a  railing  are  ornamented,  iron 
boxes  are  to  be  chosen.  As  an  illustration  of  orna- 
mental green-sand  moulding,  we  will  choose  a  square 
hollow  column  or  railing-post,  represented  in  figure 
1.0.  Figure  11  is  the  post  represented  in  a  section 
cutting  through  the  post  and  the  flask.  The  pattern 


G4      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE 

Fig.  10. 


Fig.  11. 


is  divisible  in  four  parts ;  it  divides  on  each  corner.  In 
moulding,  one  of  these  parts  or  one  side  is  laid  on  a 
board,  and  the  lower  box  filled  over  the  pattern;  the  box 
is  then  turned,  the  sand  smoothed,  and  the  two  other 
parts  A  A  put  on.  To  keep  these  parts  of  the  pattern 
in  their  places,  four  or  more  small  square  boards  are 
put  between  them.  These  boards  are  of  exactly  the 
size  to  fill  the  inside,  B,  of  the  square.  Parting- 
sand  is  now  thrown  on,  and  the  middle  box  put  in  its 
place.  The  middle  box  is  divisible  on  both  ends,  kept 
together  by  hooks,  so  that  each  part,  A,  of  the  box 
can  be  removed  by  itself.  The  spaces,  A  A,  and  B, 
are  now  rammed  in  and  filled  flush  with  the  pattern 
and  the  box.  After  this  the  fourth  side  of  the  pattern 


MOULDING  65 

is  put  in  its  place,  which  forms  the  top  ;  parting-sand 
and  the  upper  box  put  on,  and  this  box  rammed  in. 
The  pins  for  the  gits  are  to  pass  through  the  middle 
box  into  the  lower ;  and  if  the  metal  is  to  be  not 
more  than  half  an  inch  thick  in  its  thinnest  parts,  it 
requires  four  gits,  if  thinner,  six  gits.  On  each  end 
of  the  column  a  flow-gate  is  set  upon  the  upper  part 
of  the  pattern.  When  all  the  boxes  are  filled,  and 
the  gate-pins  in,  the  top  is  covered  with  a  board,  and 
the  flask  inverted.  The  drag-box  is  now  lifted,  and 
the  side  of  the  pattern  removed.  The  four  parts  of 
the  pattern  are  to  be  fastened,  each  to  its  respective 
box,  by  means  of  screws  passing  through  the  sand  into 
the  pattern.  Each  of  the  four  sides  of  the  pattern 
has  its  taper  towards  the  box.  This  lower  part  of 
the  mould  is  to  be  well  finished  before  closing,  for  there 
will  be  no  opportunity  of  getting  at  it  again.  The 
tmall  square  boards,  B,  are  now  withdrawn,  and  the 
spaces  left  by  them  in  the  core,  filled  up  with  sand. 
When  the  requisite  work  on  this  side  is  performed,  the 
diag-box  is  put  on  again  and  the  flask  reversed. 
The  git-pins  are  now  withdrawn,  the  upper  box  with 
its  part  of  the  pattern  removed  and  put  aside,  until 
both  parts  of  the  middle  box  are  ready.  The  pins 
which  hold  the  middle  box  to  the  .lower,  are  not  to 
fit  too  closely,  or  are  to  be  moveable,  for  the  parts 


66  MOULDER'S  AND  POUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
of  the  middle  box  are  to  be  drawn  in  an  angle,  be- 
cause it  cannot  be  done  straight.  The  process  of 
withdrawing  the  pattern  from  the  middle  and  upper 
box  is  simple,  and  requires  no  particular  description. 
For  this  kind  of  work  a  somewhat  open  sand,  or  fine 
sand  mixed  with  ground  coke  or  ground  charcoal,  is 
to  be  used.  Too  close  or  too  strong  sand  is  liable  to 
cause  explosions  in  this  case.  Many  apparently 
complicated  patterns  may,  like  this  pattern,  be 
very  easily  moulded,  and  by  simple  means,  if  they 
are  properly  divided. 

Moulding  of  Hollow -ware. — The  distinct  objects  of 
this  branch  are,  however  numerous,  still  of  great 
similarity.  In  no  branch  of  the  art  of  moulding  is 
skill  and  dexterity  brought  to  such  perfection  as 
here ;  it  is  the  result  of  the  division  of  labour,  prac- 
tised in  this  department.  The  objects  belonging  to 
this  branch,  are  pots,  kettles,  fire-grates,  stoves  and 
stove-plates,  grate-bars,  locks,  latches,  hinges,  and 
all  such  articles,  which  are  standard  articles  of  com- 
merce. In  this  case  it  is  not  alone  the  sharp, 
well  expressed  outlines  of  the  pattern  which  are 
essential ;  besides  these,  well  finished  articles 
require  smooth  surfaces,  uniform  thickness,  and 
a  high  degree  of  lightness.  The  sand  of  a  hol- 
low-ware fcundry  is  to  be  fine,  but  it  may  be 


MOULDING.  G7 

liberally  mixed  with  coal-powder ;  blackening  or  an- 
thracite may  be  used  for  dusting.  The  most  elegant 
patterns  are  now  manufactured  into  stoves,  and  we  may 
say,  that  there  is  no  nation  where  the  art  of  construct- 
ing elegant  and  economical  iron  stoves  and  fire-grates, 
lias  been  carried  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  our  country. 
The  moulding  of  these  patterns  is  simple,  there  arc 
but  few  complicated  forms,  and  therefore  this  branch 
is  no  particular  object  of  .our  investigation.  In  the 
manufacture  of  hollow-ware,  there  is  a  great  advan- 
tage in  good  well-finished  patterns.  If  the  patterns 
are  perfect  there  is  generally  no  difficulty  found  in 
making  good  castings,  for  most  of  the  articles  are 
thin,  and  there  is  little  danger  of  the  sand  burning 
and  adhering  to  the  metal.  Articles  of  commerce 
are  generally  worked  to  as  much  advantage  as  pos- 
sible. Patterns  of  small  articles,  as  parts  of  locks, 
latches,  hinges,  knife-blades,  knife-covers,  and  other 
small  articles,  are  generally  put  ten  or  twenty  or 
more  together,  connected  by  a  permanent  channel 
which  conducts  the  metal  from  the  gits  to  the  pat- 
jerns,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  pattern.  Such  a  batch, 
or  set  of  patterns,  generally  fills  one  flask.  The 
New  England  States,  and  Pittsburgh,  are  remark- 
ably successful  in  manufacturing  small  articles.  In 
some  cases  various  articles  are  put  promiscuously 


68  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
into  one  flask,  in  which,  however,  a  similarity  of 
size  is  to  be  observed.  Whatever  number  of  pat- 
terns there  may  be  in  one  flask,  it  is  always  calcu- 
lated to  cast  a  flask  of  small  objects  with  one  ladleful 
of  metal. 

Moulding  of  a  Coffee  Kettle. — As  an  object  to  illus- 
trate hollow  moulding,  we  will  choose  the  form  of  a 
common  coffee  pot,  or  water  kettle,  represented  as 
moulded,  in  figure  12.  The  form  of  a  water  kettle 

Fig.  12. 


is  generally  known.  It  is  an  almost  spherical  ves- 
sel, with  a  snout  or  pipe.  We  have  selected  one  which 
fits  to  a  cooking  stove,  with  a  contracted  flat  bottom  ; 
in  other  cases  that  bottom  is  round,  with  three  studs 
to  stand  on.  The  pattern  is  here  an  exact  model 
of  the  kettle  as  it  is  to  be,  with  the  exception  of  the 
pipe,  which  is,  or  may  be  solid.  The  flask  consists 
of  three  boxes,  of  which  the  middle  box  is  divided  by  a 
vertical  division  into  two  halves — cheeks.  This  divi- 


MOULDING.  69 

sion  runs  through  the  pipe  and  divides  the  mould  into 
two  halves,  so  that  when  both  boxes  are  removed, 
the  pipe,  which  is  not  fastened  to  the  pattern,  may  be 
withdrawn.  In  this  case  the  upper  part  of  the  pat- 
tern is  divided  just  in  the  division  of  the  middle  box, 
which  leaves  an  unsightly  division,  and  is  likely  to 
expose  the  pattern  to  injury.  A  better  plan  of  work- 
ing is,  to  have  the  middle  box  in  one  piece,  and  di- 
vide at  the  lines  A,  A,  and  B,  B.  At  the  pipe  the 
upper  box  reaches  down  into  the  middle  box,  as  far 
as  the  pipe  goes  down,  and  divides  the  sand  just  along 
the  bend  of  the  pipe ;  the  middle  box  parts  with  the 
lower  at  the  rim  of  the  kettle,  where  the  core  also 
separates,  as  indicated  by  the  darker  and  lighter 
shades  of  sand  in  the  drawing.  The  pattern  is 
only  divisible  in  the  line  A,  A,  through  the  pipe. 
In  moulding  this  kettle  the  lower  (in  the  drawing 
the  upper)  half  is  put  on  a  board  and  the  upper 
box  rammed  in,  this  box  turned  upside  down  and  the 
other  half  of  the  pattern  put  on.  The  middle  box 
is  then  set  in  its  place,  and  fastened  to  the  upper  box. 
Both  boxes  may  also  be  put  together,  and  rammed 
in  together,  just  as  conveniently.  Sand  is  then  filled 
in  the  middle  box  around  the  pattern,  and  after  this 
the  sand  is  rammed  inside  of  the  kettle.  The  parting 
is  made  between  the  lower  and  middle  box,  as  indi  • 


70  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
eated,  and  the  lower  box  filled.  The  flask  stands 
now  inverted,  and  the  kettle  on  its  bottom.  The 
lower  box — as  the  flask  stands  it  is  the  upper  box — 
is  now  withdrawn,  then  the  middle  box  lifted  and 
the  upper  half  of  the  pattern  withdrawn.  First  the 
middle  and  then  the  upper  box  put  on  again,  and 
the  flask  turned,  which  will  now  stand  as  in  the  draw- 
ing. We  may  now  draw  the  upper  box,  remove  the 
lower  part  of  the  pattern,  and  put  in  the  core  for  the 
pipe,  which  is  made  in  a  separate  core-box.  The  git- 
pin  is  now  drawn  :  this  is  very  much  tapered  one  way, 
and  thin,  the  other  way  three  or  four  inches  wide, 
formed  like  a  blunt  wedge,  whose  edge  is  J  of  an  inch 
thick.  The  box  is  now  put  on  again,  and  the  mould 
ready  for  casting. 

Patterns  for  hollow-ware  require  to  be  very  accu- 
rate, if  we  expect  the  moulding  to  be  well  done. 
The  originals  of  these  patterns  are  generally  mould- 
ed in  loam,  cast  in  brass,  and  turned  in  a  turning 
lathe,  or,  if  not  of  a  round  form,  worked  by  other 
means  until  a  perfect  form  is  obtained.  A  pattern 
having  been  smoothed  and  polished,  is  then  cut  into 
such  parts  as  are  considered  necessary  to  make  it 
available.  Pins,  ears  for  handles,  and  studs  for  feet 
or  handles,  are  generally  put  on  loose.  All  dished 
utensils  are  generally  cast  with  their  mouth  down- 


MOULDING.  71 

wards,  except  covers.  Where  the  neck  of  a  core  is 
narrow,  and  there  is  any  danger  of  the  hot  metal 
lifting  the  core,  as  may  occur  in  the  case  of  the 
coffee  pot,  the  core  is  fastened  to  the  bottom  of 
the  flask  by  a  thin  iron  rod  with  a  cross  at  the 
upper  end,  buried  in  the  core  and  fastened  below  the 
bottom.  Hollow-ware  moulders  need  a  variety  of 
peculiarly  shaped  tools,  and  sleekers.  Most  of  the 
tools  are  button-shaped,  with  short  studs  for  handles, 
more  or  less  round,  or  even  cylindrical,  to  suit  the 
various  hollow  forms  of  the  patterns ;  others  are  plain 
and  heart-shaped ;  others  again  have  double  plain  sur- 
faces at  certain  angles  with  each  other,  to  suit  certain 
corners  in  the  mould.  Blackening — plumbago — is 
chiefly  used  as  dust,  and  if  well  polished,  it  will  make 
smooth  and  good-looking  castings. 

In  this  kind  of  moulding,  iron  boxes  are  generally 
used ;  this  is  necessary  to  secure  good  and  correct 
castings  ;  it  is  also  the  cheapest  way.  If  iron  flasks 
are  well  made,  the  work  in  them  is  done  fast,  well, 
and  safe,  while  imperfectly  made  or  wooden  flasks 
always  cause  more  or  less  delay  in  work.  From  well 
made  flasks  many  advantages  may  be  derived :  we 
will  mention  one.  Suppose  a  moulder  is  to  mould 
twenty  flasks  of  one  and  the  same  pattern,  if  the 
boxes  are  well  made  and  fit  one  upon  the  other  pro- 


72  MOULDEK'S  AND  FOUNDER'^  POCKET  GUIDE. 
miscuously,  there  is  no  need  of  boards  after  the  first 
drag-box  is  moulded.  Upon  the  first  box  which  is 
moulded,  say  the  lower  box,  its  complement  the 
upper  box  is  ran-med  in.  After  parting  upon  the 
upper  box,  the  next  lower  box  is  moulded,  leaving  of 
course  the  pattern  always  in  that  box  which  serves  as 
the  bottom  of  the  flask.  In  this  way  the  top  box  of 
the  first  flask  serves  as  the  bottom  to  the  next  bottom 
box,  and  so  on  through  the  whole  range  of  boxes.  Each 
two  boxes  come  together  as  they  have  been  moulded, 
and  it  may  happen  in  the  course  of  the  work,  that 
one  of  the  last  boxes  will  not  fit  to  one  of  the  first, 
which  however  does  not  make  any  perceptible  differ- 
ence in  the  correctness  of  the  castings.  It  requires 
some  dexterity  and  experience  to  succeed  well  in  this 
mode  of  moulding. 

There  are  many  articles  here  not  enumerated  as 
belonging  to  green-sand  moulding ;  such  as  iron  cast- 
ings, parts  of  architecture,  which  are  now  so  exten- 
sively used.  To  this  belong  window  and  door  sills, 
door  and  window  frames,  columns  and  railing.  All 
these  forms  are  easily  moulded,  and  require  no  par- 
ticular  details ;  we  shall,  however,  mention  some  of 
them  in  the  following  chapters. 


"   MOULDING.  73 

Mixed  Sand  Moulding. — Moulding  in  green  sand 
with  dried  cores,  may  be  considered  a  mixed  mould- 
ing, which  requires  particular  knowledge  of  the 
composition  and  construction  of  cores.  In  previous 
pages  we  have  Spoken  of  core-sand,  but  we  shall 
here  treat  upon  the  formation  of  cores,  and  the 
quality  of  the  core-sand  for  particular  purposes.  The 
management  of  cores  is  a  matter  which  requires 
eome  ingenuity ;  malformation  often  causes  perplexing 
failures,  and  is  in  most  cases  the  source  of  unsound 
castings. 

Cores  are  especially  used  in  forming  vacancies  it. 
castings,  which  cannot  be  successfully  formed  by  the 
pattern.  The  forms  of  cores  vary  greatly,  as  may 
be  expected ;  but  in  general,  if  made  of  open  porous 
sand,  free  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter,  and  of  coal, 
and  if  the  sand  does  not  contain  too  much  clay,  and 
the  cores  are  properly  dried,  there  is  hardly  any 
difficulty  experienced  on  account  of  the  cores. 
A  caution  not  to  be  neglected  is,  that  cores  are 
never  to  be  put  into  a  green-sand  mould  until  the 
very  latest  moment  before  casting.  Cores  which 
are  not  surrounded  by  metal  on  all  sides,  are 
made  of  stronger  sand  than  others  which  are 
often  not  dried  at  all.  In  cores  which  are  cov- 
ered tvith  metal  on  all  sides,  and  have  only  one  01 


74  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
two  small  vent-holes  for  the  escape  of  the  gases,  as 
is  the  case  with  cores  for  narrow  pipes,  the  sand  id 
moderately  mixed  with  free-sand.  It  is  to  have  no 
more  clay  or  adhesive  matter  than  is  just  necessary 
to  make  it  adhere  for  being  moulded  and  dried. 
Sand  of  sharp  grains,  as  pounded  rock  or  slag,  ia 
more  open  than  the  composition  of  round  grains, 
as  river  or  sea-sand,  and  for  this  reason  prefer- 
able. In  many  cases,  yeast  or  meal  water  is  used 
besides  clay  water  to  strengthen  the  core-sand,  but 
these  ought  to  be  used  cautiously,  for  not  only  water, 
but  any  other  substance  which  generates  gases  is 
injurious  to  core-sand,  causing  blower  holes  in  the 
castings.  The  safest  core-sand  is  a  natural  sand  which 
can  be  used!  without  any  artificial  admixtures. 
Moulders  ought  to  examine  their  neighbourhood  until 
they  find  sand  suited  to  their  purpose,  in  case  they 
are  not  already  provided  with  it.  Long  or  thin  cores 
are  stiffened  by  iron  wires,  or  small  rods  of  iron, 
which  are  moistened  with  clay  water.  Such  wires 
or  rods  are  buried  in  the  core,  and  recovered  when 
the  casting  is  cleansed  from  its  adhering  sand.  Cores 
of  considerable  length,  also  those  in  which  the  sand 
is  rather  strong,  are  pierced  with  long  wires  through 
the  whole  length,  taking  care  not  to  drive  the  piercer 
through  the  surface  of  the  core.  Curved  or  angu 


MOULDING.  75 

lar  cores,  which  cannot  be  pierced,  and  are  too  long 
to  do  without  vent-holes,  are  made  open  by  laying 
one  or  more  strings  along  the  stiffening  wire  in  the 
heart  of  the  core,  which  strings  are  drawn  out  after  the 
core  is  dry.  If  cores  are  too  long  to  bear  their  own 
weight  and  the  pressure  of  the  metal,  they  are  to 
be  supported  by  chaplets  or  by  staples.  The  latter 
are  simply  nails  with  broad  flat  heads ;  they  are  stuck 
into  the  sand  mould,  and  project  with  their  heads  just 
so  far  as  the  thickness  of  the  metal  between  the 
mould  and  the  core  is  to  be.  Chaplets  are  simply 
bent  pieces  of  sheet  iron  in  the  form  of  a  [,  or  two 
pieces  of  sheet  iron  riveted  to  a  pin,  the  distance 
between  both  being  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
metal.  Cores  are  covered  with  a  coating  of  black- 
ening, which  is  put  on  wet.  This  is  the  more  ne- 
cessary, as  the  cavities  male  by  cores  are  mostly 
difficult  of  access,  and  an  easy  scaling  off  of  the  sand 
from  the  iron  is  therefore  very  desirable.  Liquid 
blackening  for  cores  is  the  same  as  that  used  in  loam- 
moulding  ;  and  by  referring  to  that  chapter  a  receipt 
for  its  composition  will  be  found.  The  blackening 
is  laid  on  the  wet  core,  as  it  leaves  the  core-box,  by 
means  of  a  heavy  paint  brush,  and  both  the  core 
and  its  blackening  are  dried  simultaneously. 

Suiall   common   cores  are  made    in  simple  core- 


76      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
boxes,  such    as  are  represented  in  figure  13.      A, 

Fig.  13. 


is  two  strips  of  boards,  with  a  square  projection  on 
each^  end.  Both  are  at  liberty  to  be  moved,  and 
if  laid  upon  a  flat  board,  sand  may  be  filled  in  the 
space  which  is  formed  by  the  squares :  for  each  size, 
that  is,  section  of  core,  such  a  box  is  required,  but 
any  length  of  core  of  that  size  may  be  made  in  a 
box  of  this  kind.  Round  cores  are  made  in  boxes 
similar  to  that  represented  in  fig.  B.  Globular 
cores  are  made  in  spherical  cavities,  and  in  fact  any 
core  in  such  a  cavity  as  it  is  destined  to  form  in  the 
casting.  Cores  are  not  always  made  because  they 
are  necessary :  they  are  frequently  made  to  save 
expense  in  patterns  and  in  moulding,  and  to  render 
a  successful  cast  more  certain. 

Moulding  of  a  Column. — As  an  instance  of  mixed 
moulding,  \ve  will  describe  the  moulding  of  a  fluted 
column,  wliich  mav  serve  as  an  illustration  for  most 


MOULDING.  77 

cases  of  this  kind,  particularly  for  pipes.     Figure 
14  represents  the  pattern  of  a  column  with  orna.- 


mented  capital,  as  it  is  imbedded  in  the  sand,  mould- 
ed, and  ready  for  removal.  A,  A,  are  the  core-prints, 
which  leave  a  cavity  to  be  filled  by  the  long  core 
which  is  to  form  the  bore,  or  hollow  in  the  column. 
It  is  in  many  cases  difficult  to  mould  a  richly  orna- 
mented capital  in  green-sand,  along  with  the  trunk 
of  the  column,  and  still  the  capital  ought  to  be  in  a 
solid  connexion  with  the  shaft ;  this  case  is  here 
represented.  On  the  pattern  of  the  column,  instead 
of  the  ornamented  capital,  a  block  of  six  or  eight 
sides,  or  of  more  or  less  than  that  number,  occupying 
the  place  of  the  cap,  is  inserted,  as  indicated  by  the 
lines  in  the  drawing,  and  more  distinctly  represen- 
ted in  figure  15,  by  the  dotted  lines  which  represent 
a  hexagon.  The  fluted  shaft  of  the  pattern  is  divided 
through  the  whole  length  into  two  halves,  which  is 
best  done  through  the  opposite  channels,  as  indicated ; 
for  a  seam  which  falls  otherwise  upon  two  ribs, 
7* 


78      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE 

Fig.  15. 


makes  these  ribs  always  more  or  less  imperfect,  which 
is  not  so  glaring  if  it  falls  in  the  channels.  Besides 
this  division  of  the  pattern,  each  half  of  the  pattern 
is  again  divided  into  three  subdivisions,  or  more,  as 
the  case  may  be.  These  latter  divisions,  as  shown 
in  the  drawing,  divide  the  circumference  of  the  co- 
lumn into  six  parts,  each  half  in  three,  held  together 
by  blocks  and  wood-screws.  After  the  screws  and 
the  blocks  are  drawn,  the  pattern  may  be  taken 
from  the  sand  in  parts,  each  part  by  itself.  No  se- 
cond part  is  removed  until  the  first  impression  is 
mended  in  the  mould,  in  case  there  is  anything  bro- 
ken in  the  sand.  The  capital  is  formed  in  the  follow- 
ing manner. :  If  it  consists  of  six  equal  ornaments, 
as  leaves  or  spirals,  one  of  these  is  carved,  and 
prepared  for  being  used  as  a  pattern ;  over  this  pat- 
tern a  core-box  is  made,  and  so  calculated  that  a  core 
made  in  this  box  will  fill  one  of  the  parts  of  the 


MOULDING.  79 

polygon  formed  by  the  pattern.  Such  a  core  will 
fit  in  the  mould,  and  occupy  one  part  of  the  space 
having  on  one  side  the  impressions  of  the  ornaments 
of  the  capital,  joining  with  two  sides  the  next  cores, 
and  resting  with  one  side  in  the  sand  of  the  mould. 
The  cores  which  belong  to  the  upper  box  may  have 
wires  or  rods  inserted  to  be  fastened  with,  to  the  box. 
After  these  cores  are  placed,  the  centre  core  is  put 
down,  the  flask  closed,  and  in  fact  managed  like  any 
other  object  of  our  consideration.  In  placing  the  cores, 
care  is  to  be  taken  that  the  liquid  metal  cannot  pene- 
trate below  a  core  and  lift  it ;  all  the  crevices  which 
would  lead  to  such  a  result  are  to  be  avoided,  cr 
carefully  filled  up  with  green-sand ;  and  if  there  is 
any  doubt  as  to  the  safety  of  the  cores,  they  are  to 
be  wired  down.  At  each  end  of  the  flask  in  the 
parting  a  small  opening  is  left  to  communicate  with 
the  vent-holes  of  the  core ;  these  openings  are  in  no 
way  connected  with  the  interior  of  the  mould,  so  as 
to  endanger  the  cast  by  admitting  hot  metal  to  run 
out  this  way.  Gits  and  channels  are  as  usual  in  the 
proper  places,  and  if  means  permit  it,  the  column 
ought  to  be  cast  inclined,  into  one  gate  which  is  at  the 
lowest  part,  the  git  raised,  by  means  of  small  boxes, 
to  such  a  height  as  to  balance  the  flow-gate.  The 
latter  is  to  be  at  the  highest  point  of  the  pattern  and 


80  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  JUIDE. 
the  box.  Here,  as  in  any  other  case,  the  cast-gate  is 
to  be  kept  full,  in  pouring  in  the  metal,  to  prevent  the 
running  in  of  impurities  along  with  the  iron.  Direct- 
ly after  the  column  is  cast,  or  better  still  while  the 
metal  is  pouring  in,  fire  is  to  be  applied  at  both  ends 
to  kindle  the  gases  escaping  from  the  core,  which 
gases  will  explode  if  left  to  kindle  spontaneously. 

Water  pipes,  gas  pipes,  or  pipes  for  any  purpose 
whatever,  are  moulded  in  th.3  same  manner  as  column  s. 
There  is  no  essential  difference,  but  in  the  form  of  the 
pattern.  The  core  of  a  pipe  is  to  be  a  fac  simile  of  the 
bore  or  hole  to  be  formed.  A  core-box  for  water  or 
gas  pipes  is  represented  in  figure  16 :  it  shows  a 

Fig.  16. 


longitudinal  section  of  an  iron  core-box.  Frequently 
such  boxes  are  made  of  wood ;  but  in  well  conducted 
establishments  they  are  made  of  cast  iron.  Wood 
is  apt  to  twist  and  warp,  and  in  consequence  causes 
imperfect  cores.  An  iron  core-box  is  generally 
round,  about  half  an  inch  thick  in  metal,  and  has 
two  square  projections  to  rest  upon  when  laid  down , 
around  these  projections  an  iron  strap  is  drawn,  to 
hold  both  halves  together  when  in  use.  A  core-box 


MOULDING.  81 

is  to  be  true  in  its  bore,  for  which  reason  it  is  bored 
or  planed,  so  as  to  mako  it  true.  Both  edges,  where 
t-he  halves  of  the  box  join,  are,  if  not  quite  sharp, 
to  form  a  blunt  edge  in  case  the  core  is  made  when 
lying  in  a  horizontal  position.  To  make  good  cores 
in  a  lying  box  requires  a  great  deal  of  experience, 
and  it  is  for  this  reason  not  generally  practised. 
In  most  cases  the  box  is  rammed-in  vertical  or  in- 
clined ;  the  latter  way  is  more  convenient  than  the 
first,  and  quite  as  good.  The  ramming-in  of  the  sand 
is  done  by  a  long  iron  ramrod.  The  centre  of  the 
core  is,  in  very  thin  cores,  say  1 J  inch  diameter,  an 
iron  rod,  along  which  a  wire  is  laid ;  both  are  ram- 
med in  together,  and  the  wire  is  withdrawn  while 
the  core  is  in  the  box.  This  leaves  a  cylindrical 
channel  all  through  the  core,  and  serves  for  the 
escape  of  the  gases.  In  thicker  cores,  of  two  or 
three  and  more  inches  in  diameter,  the  centre  rod  is 
a  hollow  pipe  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  full  of  holes. 
The  latter  are  necessary,  or  the  gas  would  not  find 
its  way  to  the  interior  of  the  pipe.  Heavy  cores 
arc  made  of  loam,  of  which  we  shall  speak  in  another 
place.  The  centre  rod  is  to  be  a  few  inches  on  each 
end  longer  than  the  core.  This  forms  the  bearing 
for  the  c«re  to  rest  upon  when  it  is  to  be  dried,  and 


82      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE 
also  the  journal  on  which  it  is  to  be  turned,  when  the 
blackening  is  1 3  be  laid  en. 

Moulding  uith  Plates. — In  many  cases  cast-iron 
plates  with  handles  are  used  when  one  part  of  the 
mould  is  to  be  removed  before  the  pattern  can  be 
drawn.  This  is  the  case  with  the  sand  between  tho 
arms  of  a  bevelled  wheel ;  also  with  face  wheels,  or 
in  cases  where  the  pattern,  and  consequently  the  sand, 
is  too  deep  to  admit  the  drawing  of  the  pattern  with- 
out injury  to  the  mould.  Plate  moulding  is  gener- 
ally performed  on  bed-plates  of  steam  engines,  bed- 
plates of  turning  lathes,  house  props,  and  in  all  cases 
where  the  sand  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  hot 
metal.  The  sand  lifted  out  in  these  instances  is  dried 
and  treated  like  a  core.  In  the  case  of  a  bevelled 
wheel  the  moulding  by  plates  is  effected  as  follows : 
Figure  17  shows  a  section  of  a  bevelled  wheel  as  it  is 

Fig.  17. 


imbedded  in  the  floor  of  the  foundry,  which  has  been 
levelled  for  the  purpose.  The  sand,  in  immedi- 
ate contact  with  the  pattern,  is  sifted.  The  parting 


MOULDING.  83 

is  in  the  line  A,  A.  In  the  spaces  between  thi> 
spokes,  cast-iron  plates,  B,  B,  are  inserted,  with 
wrought-iron  handles  cast  into  them:  these  plates 
are  cast  in  open  sand,  and  from  J  to  f  of  an  inch 
thick.  They  have  in  this  case  a  triangular  form, 
similar  to  the  space  they  serve  to  occupy,  and  are  at 
least  two  inches  all  round,  smaller  than  that  space. 
These  plates  are  laid  upon  the  parting,  or,  in  many 
instances,  impressed  into  the  sand  about  J  of  an  inch 
deer.  They  are  then  covered  over  with  a  layer  of 
small  iron  rods,  or  wire,  or  in  many  cases  wooden 
rods,  dipped  in  clay-water.  These  rods  overhang 
the  plate  and  reach  near  to  the  pattern.  The  body 
of  sand  in  the  centre  of  the  plate  will  sustain  that 
end  of  the  rod  which  is  to  carry  the  sand  beyond 
the  plate.  The  space  between  the  arms  is  then  filled 
upon  the  plates  with  moulding  sand,  flush  with  the 
pattern.  This  forms  the  parting  for  the  box.  After  the 
pattern  is  covered,  and  the  top  box  removed,  the  sand 
between  the  arms  is  removed,  by  means  of  the  han- 
dle C  ;  of  which  there  may  be  more  than  one  if  the 
core  to  be  lifted  is  too  heavy  for  one  hand,  or  it  is  to 
be  lifted  by  the  crane.  This  part  of  the  mould 
forms  separate  pieces :  cores  in  the  form  of  triangles, 
which  may  be  blackened  and  dried.  The  pattern 
being  removed  and  the  other  parts  of  the  mould 


84  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
ready  for  casting,  the  plates  are  replaced,  eithei 
green  or  dried,  just  as  convenient.  The  upper  box 
is  put  on,  and  the  mould  may  be  filled  with  metal. 
This  kind  of  moulding  is  very  extensively  used  ; 
it  is  a  cheap  and  very  convenient  way  of  working. 

Dry-Sand  Moulding. — This  is  a  very  interesting 
branch  of  moulding ;  to  it  belong  most  of  the  brass 
and  bronze  moulding,  ornamental  iron  moulding,  and 
a  great  part  of  machine  moulding.  Dry-sand  mould- 
ing is  in  many  respects  preferable  to  loam-moulding  ; 
it  gives  a  casting  more  true  to  the  pattern  than  loam, 
which  latter,  on  account  of  its  shrinkage,  frequently 
gives  imperfect  forms  to  the  cast.  The  strength 
and  uniform  texture  of  the  castings  is  quite  as  well 
secured  in  dry-sand  moulds  as  in  loam  moulds., 
Dried  or  baked  sand  often  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
loam  which  has  been  used,  and  fresh  sand ;  in  most 
cases,  however,  particularly  in  ornamental  moulding, 
fresh  sand  is  used.  Dry-sand  obtains  a  very  firm 
and  open  texture,  and  is  well  qualified  to  cast  machine 
shafts,  pipes,  and  such  articles  as  require  strength 
and  beauty.  The  manipulation  of  moulding  in  dry 
sand  is  exactly  the  same  as  in  green-sand,  but  is  less 
difficult.  In  this  case  no  coal  powder  is  mixed  with 
the  sand,  which  leaves  the  sand  stronger.  If  fresh 
Band  is  used,  it  is  of  very  easy  moulding.  When 


MOULDING.  85 

the  moulds  are  finished  and  blackened,  they  are 
conveyed  to  the  drying  stoves,  for  at  least  twelve  hours, 
twenty-four  hours,  is  better  to  expel  by  the  action  of 
heat  the  moisture  contained  in  the  damp  sand.  The 
blackening  is  done  by  a  paint  brush,  in  the  humid  way, 
just  as  loam  moulds  or  cores  are  blackened.  This  is 
done  with  some  caution,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  sharp 
outlines  of  the  mould.  The  blackening  is  applied 
very  thin.  A  moulder  who  understands  mixing  his 
sand  properly,  so  as  to  be  strong  and  porous,  and 
assume  at  the  same  time  fine  impressions,  will  make 
finer  castings  in  this  way  than  can  be  done  in  any 
other  mode  of  moulding.  Dry-sand  moulding  requires 
strong  iron  boxes ;  wood  is  impracticable,  for  even  if  it 
did  not  burn  in  drying  the  mould,  its  warping  and 
twisting  would  injure  the  mould.  All  the  traverses,  if 
any  are  needed,  are  to  be  of  iron.  Long  patterns, 
as  shafts,  require  particularly  strong  boxes,  for  these 
are  mostly  cast  in  a  vertical,  or  at  least  in  an  inclined 
position.  The  pressure  upon  sand  and  boxes  is  then 
very  heavy.  Hooks  and  eyes  are  in  these  cases 
not  strong  enough  to  hold  the  boxes  together ;  it 
requires  glands  to  accomplish  this.  Glands  are 
double  angles,  made  of  flat  wrought  iron.  The  rods 
are  to  be  six  inches  longer  than  the  height  of  the  flask, 
or  of  the  two  boxes  together :  these  six  inches  are  foi 


86  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
bending  a  square  angle  at  each  end  of  the  rod,  after 
which  it  assumes  the  form  of  a  [ .  The  distance 
between  the  angular  ends  is  to  be  a  little  greater  than 
the  height  of  the  boxes  and  bottom.  In  slanting 
these  glands  upon  the  boxes,  the  flask  may  be  drawn 
together  as  tight  as  the  strength  of  the  glands  will 
permit.  The  drawing  of  the  glands  is  performed  by 
small  crow-bars  gently,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  mould. 
We  shall  speak  of  this  hereafter.  Boxes  for  dry-sand 
moulding,  if  heavy,  are  to  be  provided  with  swivels 
on  each  end,  for  each  box  is  to  be  turned,  the  facing 
of  the  mould  uppermost ;  blackening  and  drying 
require  this.  In  moulding  pipes,  which  need  strength, 
it  is  necessary  to  mould  them  in  dry  sand,  in  strong 
boxes,  and  to  cast  them  vertically,  or  at  least  inclined 
30°  or  40°.  Pipes,  or  any  other  objects  which  are 
cast  horizontal,  have  always  one  bad  side.  The 
upper  side  is  in  most  cases  porous,  unsound,  and, 
in  pipes,  generally  thinner  than  the  bottom  side. 
The  liquid  metal  is  apt  to  lift  the  core,  in  spite  of 
staples  or  chaplets.  Another  advantage  arises  from 
casting  vertically,  in  the  better  escape  of  the  gas, 
and  the  greater  security  of  the  core  against  injury. 
The  core  is  not  so  liable  to  bend  and  the  core-rods 
may  be  lighter. 


MOULDING.  87 

Moulding  of  a  Large  Pipe. — There  h  not  the 
slightest  difference  between  moulding  in  dry-sand, 
and  moulding  in  green-sand,  except  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  sand,  blackening,  and  drying  of  the  mould ; 
and  therefore  it  hardly  seems  necessary  to  illustrate 
this  branch.  We  will,  however,  describe  the  mould- 
ing of  a  large  water  pipe,  as  illustrative  of  this  case, 
and  introductory  to  loam  moulding.  All  water  pipes 
of  more  than  twelve  inches  diameter,  ought  to  be 
moulded  in  dry-sand,  and  with  loam  cores.  Water 
pipes  are  generally  made  from  eight  to  nine  feet 
long — small  pipes  frequently  but  five  or  six  feet  long. 
The  pattern  is  like  the  exterior  of  the  pipes  as  it  is 
to  be  when  cast,  having  at  each  end  a  core  print 
five  or  six  inches  long.  The  pattern  may  be  of  a 
solid  piece  of  wood,  but  is  generally  composed  of 
strips  of  plank,  to  diminish  the  weight  of  it ;  it  is 
divided  parallel  with  its  axis,  into  two  halves.  After 
the  moulding  is  performed  in  the  usual  way,  the 
mould  is  blackened  and  carried  to  the  drying-stove, 
on  an  iron  tram-road,  or  by  means  of  a  crane.  If  the 
foundry  possesses  no  drying  stove,  or  if  the  boxes 
are  too  heavy  for  transport,  some  boxes  may  be  put 
together,  a  temporary  wall  of  bricks  or  moulding 
boxes  set  around  it,  covered  with  sheet  iron,  and  a 
fire  of  coke  or  charcoal  or  anthracite  is  kindled 


88     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

below.  The  boxes  are  dried  in  this  way  on  the  flool 
of  the  foundry.  This  mode  of  drying  moulds,  how- 
ever, is  imperfect,  and  slow,  produces  inconvenience  in 
the  foundry,  and  is  expensive.  The  making  of  a  loam 
core  is  a  matter  of  no  difficulty,  if  core-bars,  loam- 
board,  and  loam  are  in  good  condition.  The  core- 
bar  is  in  this  case  a  hollow,  cast-iron,  cylindrical 
pipe,  perforated  all  over  its  surface,  with  either 
round  or  oblong  holes.  The  core-bar  is  about  three 
inches  less  in  diameter  than  the  core  is  to  be,  with 
a  view  to  provide  room  for  a  hay  or  straw  rope,  by 
which  the  core  is  made  porous,  and  so  thick  as  to 
leave  just  sufficient  space  for  loam.  The  core-iron 
has  a  journal  at  each  end,  made  of  wrought  iron  and 
screwed  to  the  cast  pipe,  leaving  as  much  opening 
as  possible  for  the  escape  of  the  gases.  These  bear- 
ings, or  journals,  may  be  of  cast  iron,  in  which  case 
they  are  made  hollow  and  square  inside,  to  receive 
a  winch  by  which  the  core-bar  is  made  to  turn  -jpon 

Fig.  18. 


MOULDING.  89 

its  axis.  The  bar  with  its  bearings  is  laid  upon  two 
iron  trestles,  as  represented  in  figure  18,  on  which 
it  may  be  turned  to  receive  its  hay  rope  and  loam. 
The  trestles  are  about  three  or  four  feet  long,  and 
are  provided  with  various  sized  triangular  dentations 
for  different-sized  journals.  The  hay  or  straw  for 
ropes  is  kept  in  a  moist  place,  to  have  it  soft  and 
Jiore  fit  for  being  twisted.  To  make  a  hay  rope,  a 
simple  winch,  made  of  quarter  inch  iron  rod,  with  a 
wooden  handle,  is  required,  such  as  is  represented  in 
figure  19,  A.  Hay  ropes  are  made  by  the  boys  when  not 

Fig.  19. 


otherwise  engaged,  and  kept  for  use  when  required. 
The  method  in  which  the  rope  is  applied  is  simple : 
the  core-bar  is  laid  with  its  journals  in  the  trestles, 
as  shown  in  figure  18,  the  rope  fastened  at  one  end, 
and  the  bar  turned  upon  its  axis ;  the  rope  is  led 
so  as  to  make  a  close  and  tight  covering.  If  the 
rope  is  loose  on  the  spindle,  it  is  liable  to  be  pressed 
together  by  the  fluid  metal,  which  would,  in  the 
most  favourable  case,  injure  the  casting,  but  would 
8* 


90  MOUL»ER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
almost  invariably  cause  a  failure  of  the  cast.  Wood- 
eu  core-bars  are  not  to  be  recommended,  as  it 
requires  something  stronger  than  wood  to  resist 
the  pressure  of  a  high  column  of  fluid  metal.  In 
figure  19,  B  represents  the  cross  section  of  a. core, 
in  which  the  core-iron,  journal,  hay  rope,  and  loan  • 
covering  are  shown.  The  Uay  rope  receives  a  slight 
covering  of  thin  loam,  just  sufficient  to  cover  the 
hay,  and  remove  the  roughness  of  the  rope.  This 
coating  of  loam  being  dried,  the  core  is  taken  again 
in  the  trusses  and  the  loam-board  is  applied. 
The  loam-board  is,  in  this  case,  an  almost  straight 
board,  of  eight  or  ten  inches  wide.  It  is  straight 
every  way,  and  to  prevent  its  bending  while  in  use, 
it  is  supported  by  a  rib,  screwed  to  it,  or  by  a  strong 
plank,  upon  which  it  rests.  The  board  is  so  long 
as  to  rest  upon  both  trusses,  and  is  fastened  to  these, 
just  so  far  from  the  centre  of  the  core-iron,  as  to 
form  half  the  diameter  of  the  finished  core.  The 
edge  of  the  board  (in  the  drawing,  the  upper  edge) 
is  shaped  as  the  form  of  the  core,  which  is  in 
this  case  almost  a  straight  line,  but  is  cut  out,  at 
one  end,  to  form  the  funnel,  or  cup-mouth,  of  the 
pipe.  When  the  board  is  in  its  proper  position, 
and  fastened  at  both  extremities  by  means  of 
weights  or  screws,  it  is  obvious  that  when  the  core- 


MOULDING.  94 

bar  is  turned  upon  its  axis,  it  will  describe  the 
form  of  the  core  along  the  edge  of  the  board. 
By  turning  the  core  bar  with  its  hay  rope  and  super- 
ficial coating  of  loam,  and  throwing  on  additional 
moist  loam,  the  surplus  moist  loam  will  be  stricken 
off  by  the  loam-board,  or  laid  on  in  those  places 
where  the  board  does  not  reach  the  loam.  When 
the  core  is  properly  filled  up  and  closely  covered  with 
loam,  the  loam-board  is  taken  away,  washed,  and  put 
in  its  place  again.  The  core  is  now  turned  some- 
what faster  than  before,  and  receives  a  slight  wash- 
ing, merely  by  dipping  the  hands  into  water,  and 
moving  them  over  the  surface  of  the  rotary  core. 
When  smoothed,  which  is  done  with  as  little  water 
as  possible,  the  core  is  brought  to  the  stove  and  dried, 
then  blackened,  dried  again,  and  is  then  ready  to  be 
put  in  the  mould.  If  the  cores  are  long  and  limber, 
the  staples  are  not  to  be  forgotten. 

The  thickness  of  the  covering  of  loam  depends 
partly  on  the  quality  of  the  loam,  but  chiefly  on  the 
thickness  of  the  metal,  and  the  duration  and  amount 
of  pressure  upon  the  core  by  the  fluid  metal.  For 
common  water  pipes,  if  cast  inclined,  and  porous 
loam  is  used,  one  inch  is  sufficient  for  the  core,  but, 
if  cast  standing,  one  inch  a:id  a  half  of  loam  ought 
to  cover  the  hay-rope.  If  :ne  thickness  of  loam  on  a 


92  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
core  be  more  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  it  is 
necessary  to  lay  on  the  loam  in  two  or  more  layers, 
always  drying  the  first  layer  before  the  next  is  put  on. 
The  loam  which  forms  the  core  is  made  as  open  as 
possible  in  its  composition ;  old  moulding-sand, 
old  core-sand,  or  river-sand  is  mixed  with  the  loam. 
The  working  edge  of  the  loam-board  is  not  a  square, 
but  is  slanted  so  as  to  form  an  angle  of  nearly  45° 
to  the  tangent  of  the  periphery  of  the  core.  This 
is  necessary  in  order  to  make  the  board  to  sleek  (to 
make  the  loam  smooth).  A  square  edge  would  cause 
a  rough  surface  to  the  core.  The  slanting  of  the 
edge  is  indicated  in  figure  19,  C,  at  one  end  of  the 
board. 

After  careful  drying,  blackening,  and  polishing, 
the  core  may  be  put  into  the  mould,  if  required. 
The  mould  is  provided  with  staples  so  as  to  support 
the  core,  and  is  then  carefully  closed.  If  the  box, 
or  the  pipe,  is  large,  it  is  advisable  to  cover  the  box 
by  a  strong  board,  and  put  the  glands  upon  the  board, 
so  that  there  is  a  board  at  top  and  bottom  of  the 
flask,  to  protect  the  sand  from  being  pushed  out. 
In  many  instances  the  moulding  boxes  are  tapered 
so  as  to  form  half  a  hexagon  ;  in  these  cases  glands 
are  of  no  use,  and  heavy  iron  weights  which  reach 
all  across  the  boxes,  are  used  to  bear  the  top-box 


MOULDING.  93 

down.  Air-holes  at  both  ends  of  the  box  are  t<  be 
provided  for,  for  the  core  in  this  case  emits  a  great 
deal  of  combustible  gas,  which  is  to  be  kindled  in 
proper  time  to  prevent  explosion. 

Pipe  moulding  is  a  very  common  employment  in 
iron  foundries,  but  still  there  is  something  peculiar 
in  it,  which  makes  it  inconvenient  to  cast  pipes  in  a 
foundry  where  green-sand  or  dry-sand  moulding  is 
done  at  the  same  time.  It  suits  best  in  a  loam-mould- 
ing establishment.  There  are  great  varieties  in  the 
form  of  pipes,  but  as  long  as  they  arc  straight,  a 
pattern  is  mafle  and  moulded  in  dry  or  green  sand. 
The  core  in  this  case  being  also  straight,  is  easily 
made.  It  is  more  difficult  to  form  the  core  for  a 
bent  pipe  or  knee.  We  will  allude  to  this  in  the 
next  chapter. 

Casting  Pipes  without  Cores. — There  was  considera- 
ble interest  manifested,  some  time  ago,  in  a  process  for 
casting  pipes  without  cores,  by  means  of  machinery. 
An  iron  mould,  well  bored  and  polished,  is  made  to 
turn  upon  its  axis  in  a  horizontal  position ;  the  fluid 
metal  cast  in  at  one  end,  will  naturally  flow  round  in 
the  mould,  and  if  sufficiently  fluid,  will  make  a  pipe 
of  uniform  thickness.  How  this  machine  turned 
out  in  practice,  we  do  not  know,  for  nothing  has 
been  said  about  it  for  a  long  time.  Any  improve- 


94  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
ment  which  will  reduce  the  price  of  iron  water  pipes 
is  worthy  of  notice,  and  the  above  machine  ought  to 
attract  sufficient  attention  to  give  it  a  fair  trial. 
One  thing  is  certain,  that  every  kind  of  pig-iron  is 
unsuitable  for  this  process. 

Moulding  of  Fine  Castings. — Before  we  conclude 
tl«is  chapter  we  will  give  a  short  description  of  orna- 
mental moulding;  that  is,  the  moulding  of  small  orna- 
ments and  trinkets  in  iron  or  bronze.  There  is  little 
difference  between  moulding  for  iron,  and  moulding  for 
bronze ;  the  chief  distinction  is  in  the  thickness  of  the 
cast.  Bronze  must  be  cast  very  thin,  if  sharp,  fine,  and 
distinct  outlines  are  desired.  In  iron,  the  same  atten- 
tion need  not  be  paid  to  the  weight  of  the  cast. 
The  principal  thing  to  be  attended  to  in  moulding 
small  articles,  is  the  quality  of  the  moulding-sand. 
This  must  be  as  fine  as  it  possibly  can  be  obtained. 
It  ought  to  have  as  little  clay,  or  any  other  foreign 
admixture,  as  possible,  to  prevent  its  shrinking,  and 
in  consequence  breaking  and  cracking.  Sand  for 
this  purpose  is  to  be  an  almost  pure  silicious  com- 
pound. Coal-powder  or  any  other  admixture  is 
inadmissible  ;  it  is  fatal  to  the  beauty  of  the  cast. 
Good  sand  of  this  kind  adheres  easily  with  the 
least  amount  of  water,  takes  the  finest  impressions 
of  the  skin,  and  may  be  cut  into  fine  slices  by  a 


MOULDING.  95 

sharp  knife.  For  this  kind  of  work,  the  greatest 
evil  is  too  much  clay  in  the  sand  ;  other  impurities 
caD  be  removed  by  sieves,  or  by  washing.  Fine 
tripoli  is  the  best  aand  for  these  purposes. 

Small  articles  of  bronze  or  iron,  are  moulded  in 
the  same  manner  as  larger  parts  of  machinery,  or 
hollow-ware.  The  sand  is  rammed  very  close  in  small 
iron  moulding-boxes,  and'  the  boxes  dried  in  the 
stove,  blackened  if  for  iron,  but  not  so  if  for  bronze 
or  brass.  For  brass  or  bronze  it  is  advisable  to  face 
the  mould  each  time  with  fresh  sand,  thrown  on 
through  a  fine  silk  sieve.  If  this  coating  is  but 
one-twelfth  or  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  it  improves 
the  casting  considerably.  Moulds  for  iron  cannot 
be  dusted  with  charcoal,  or  black  lead,  as  these 
would  be  too  coarse.  The  moulds  after  they  are  dry 
are  blackened  by  a  rush-candle,  or  the  black  smoke 
from  a  pine  knot.  The  box  which  contains  the  mould 
is  inverted,  so  as  to  turn  the  face  of  the  mould  down- 
wards, rested  upon  two  extreme  points.  The  flame 
of  the  candle  or  wood  is  held  under  the  mould,  which 
will  assume  in  consequence  a  velvety  coating  of  fine 
carbon.  There  is  to  be  as  little  blackening  as  possi- 
ble ;  too  much  will  injure  the  mould  and  the  casting. 
To  mould  a  simple  rosette,  or  anything  which  gives 
but  a  simple  impression  in  the  lower  and  upper  box, 


96  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
is  of  very  easy  performance.  The  case  is  different 
with  more  complicated  forms — articles  which  can 
not  be  screwed  together,  but  must  be  cast  in  one 
piece,  as  statues,  columns,  and  other  similar  objects 
This  is  an  interesting  art,  and  it  may  be  of  some  use 
to  illustrate  a  few  cases  of  this  kind. 

Moulding  of  a  Stag. — If  the  small  form  of  a  stag, 
Igure  20,  resting  upon  a  platform,  is  to  be  moulded, 

Fig.  20. 


it  is  at  once  visible  that  the  antlers  cannot  well  be 
brought  into  the  same  mould  with  the  body :  they 
are  moulded  by  themselves,  and  screwed  on.  The 
platform  can  be  cast  with  the  body,  but  it  makes  less 
work  in  moulding  to  cast  them  separate,  and  screw 
the  platform  also  to  the  body.  We  have  now  only 
the  body  of  the  animal  left  to  make  a  mould  for. 
In  this  case  the  natural  parting  is  over  the  back, 
following  the  spine,  and  so  dividing  the  face  and 
nrcast.  The  pattern  is  accordingly  cut  in  two  in 


MOULDING.  97 

this  line.     Wnen  one  half  of  the  pattern  is  moulded, 
the  box  is  turned  up,  and  so  much  of  the  sand  as  can- 
not be  lifted,  is  cut  out  around  that  half  of  the  pat- 
tern;  this   forms  the   parting  of  the  boxes.     The 
surface  of  the  parting  is  well  polished,  some  parting- 
sand  thrown  on,  and  the  other  half  of  the  pattern 
set  upon  the  first.     Cores  are  now  to  be  provided  in 
those  places  where  the  upper  box  will  not  lift.     We 
find  that  a  core  is  to  be  made  between  the  two  fore- 
legs, as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line.     Another  core 
is  needed  on  the  face,  from  the  nose  to  the  ears ; 
and  a  third  core,  joining  the  second  at  the  ears, 
running  down  its  neck.     This  will  be  all  the  cores 
needed,  for  the  other  parts  of  the  pattern  divide 
naturally.     These   cores  are  made  of  fresh   sand, 
even  if  the  other  mould  is  made  of  old  sand.     Old 
sand  will  not  stand  the  necessary  moving  of  these 
cores.     The  cores  are  often^  moulded  upon  fine  blot- 
ting or  oiled  tissue  paper,  if  small ;  but  if  the  cores 
are  large,  wire  is  to  be  buried  in  them.     When  the 
upper  box  is  filled  with  sand,  which  is  done  after  the 
cores  are  well  finished  and  parting-sand  put  on,  the 
upper  box  is  lifted,  one  half  of  the  pattern  removed, 
and  the  flask  closed  again.    The  flask  is  now  inverted, 
the  lower  box  lifted,  and  the  other  half  of  the  pat- 
tern removed.     The  same  manipulation,  in  principle, 


98      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  IOCKEI  GUIDE. 
is  used  in  moulding  a  grooved  pulley.     By  this  rood* 
of  moulding,  the  cores  are  not  removed.    This  is  only 
practicable  where  the  pattern  can  be  and  is  divided, 
and  where  it  is  of  light  material.     If  the  pattern  is 
heavy,  made  of  metal,  and  it  cannot  be  divided,  then 
the  cores  are  to  be  drawn  back  from  it  as  soon  as 
the  upper  box  has  been  lifted.     There  is  no  need 
of  moving  the  cores  further  than  is  just  necessary 
to  have  them  out  of  the  way  for  lifting  the  pattern. 
Good   parting-sand   is   sufficient   to  separate  cores 
so   large  as   to   take  wire.     Very  small  cores  are 
best   bedded   upon   paper;    in    pulling   the   paper, 
the   core   resting   upon   it   will   follow.      As    soon 
as  the  pattern  is  removed  from  the  sand,  the  cores 
are  again  put  in  their  places,  and  the  boxes  removed 
to  the  drying-stove  for  drying.     It  is  a  matter  of 
precaution  to  fasten  the  cores,  if  they  are  once  in 
their  places,  with  hooks  of  thin  iron  wire,  bent  at 
one  end,  and  pin  the  cores  to  the  mould.     There  is 
less  danger  of  injury  happening  to  the  mould,  in  hand- 
ling the  boxes,  if  the  cores  are  secured  in  this  man- 
ner.    When  the  mould  is  properly  dried,  which  may 
be  done  within  twelve  hours  (though  a  longer  time 
would  be  preferable),  it  is  joined  together,  glands  or 
screws  put  on,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  cast.   If  the  arti- 
cle is  to  be  cast  in  bronze,  brass,  or  any  »ther  metal 


MOULDING.  99 

besides  ircn,  it  is  not  blackened ;  but  if  it  is  to  be  cast 
in  iron,  it  is  blackened  as  before  described.  There 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  casting  the  antlers  to  this  pat- 
tern :  the  platform  also  is  very  simple.  Moulders 
who  are  skilled  in  this  kind  of  work,  will  mould  two 
loose  cores,  one  upon  the  other,  but  in  most  cases  it 
is  preferable  to  dry  one  part  of  the  mould  with  its 
cores,  and  then  put  on  the  other  cores ;  in  both 
cases,  however,  it  requires  experience  to  handle  such 
tender,  brittle  things,  as  small  sand  cores,  often  but 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  half  an  inch  in 
area. 

Ornamental  compositions  are  screwed  together, 
to  form  an  ornament  of  many  parts.  Small  orna- 
ments are  soldered  together,  or  riveted  and  soldered. 
Solder  for  iron  trinkets  is  a  fluid  composition  of  a 
little  silver  and  gold.  The  soldering  is  performed 
by  the  blow-pipe.  Solder  for  brass  and  bronze  is 
the  same,  if  the  articles  are  to  be  gilded ;  in  ordi- 
nary cases,  brass  or  tin  solder  is  used. 

Brass  ornaments  are  mostly  cast  hollow ;  this  is 
not  so  much  for  reasons  of  economy,  as  with  a  view 
of  making  more  perfect  castings,  and  saving  labour 
in  chipping  and  chiselling.  As  no  coal  can  be  used 
to  protect  the  metal  against  burning  together  with 
the  sand,  it  is  neo«ssary  to  cool  it  as  quick  as  possi- 


100  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GOTDE 
ble,  and  in  this  way  give  it  a  smooth  surface.  Tht 
making  of  cores  in  these  instances  is  often  connected 
with  considerable  difficulties.  The  cores  of  compli- 
cated figures  are  composed  of  parts,  that  is,  a  core- 
box  is  made  for  one  part  of  the  core,  and  the  parts 
cemented  together  to  form  the  core.  Iron  castings 
are  but  seldom  cast  hollow,  if  small,  that  is,  articles 
of  less  than  six  or  eight  inches  extent ;  larger  figures 
in  iron  are  cast  hollow,  for  if  the  body  of  hot  iron 
is  large,  it  will  burn  the  sand,  or  melt  together  with 
it.  Fluid  iron,  suitable  for  small  castings,  and  the 
use  of  good  fine  sand,  will  make  ornaments  finer  and 
sharper  in  expression  than  castings  in  any  other 
metal.  Horse-hair  and  cotton  thread  may  be  imita- 
ted to  perfection.  The  wings  of  a  fly  with  its  micro- 
scopic nerves  may  be  copied  in  iron;  and  green  leaves 
stiffened  so  as  to  be  applicable  as  patterns,  may  be 
cast  in  iron  without  difficulty. 

Loam-Moulding. — This  is  the  most  ancient  branch 
of  moulding.  In  this  department  the  moulder  is 
his  own  pattern  maker.  He  furnishes  in  most 
cases  the  pattern,  and  makes  the  mould  also.  In 
some  instances  a  pattern,  or  parts  of  a  pattern,  aro 
made  of  wood,  and  buried  in  the  loam,  but  these 
cases  do  not  happen  frequently.  The  loam-moulder 
will  furnish  patterns  with  great  ease,  which  cannot 


MOULDING.  101 

be  made-  well  or  so  cheaply  in  any  other  way.  Any 
term  of  a  pattern,  or  any  casting  of  whatever  kind, 
may  be  done  in  loam.  In  practice,  loam-moulding 
is  generally  restricted  to  forms  which  cannot  be  cast 
conveniently  in  any  other  way.  Loam-moulding  is 
more  expensive,  generally  speaking,  than  any  other 
kind  of  moulding,  except  in  cases  of  simple  forms 
and  heavy  castings. 

Every  piece  of  loam-moulding  is  a  regularly  con- 
structed edifice.  No  moulding  in  loam  for  a  casting 
of  importance,  is  commenced  until  a  perfect  plan  of 
the  whole  operation  from  beginning  to  end  is  laid 
down.  If  no  such  plan  is  made,  it  may  happen, 
and  frequently  does  happen,  to  be  impracticable 
to  mould  in  the  way  commenced,  whereby  often  the 
labour  spent  so  far,  is  lost.  The  most  important 
part  of  this  branch  of  moulding,  is  the  composition 
of  the  loam  employed;  it  demands  the  strictest 
attention,  and  is  varied  according  to  the  objects  to 
be  moulded,  as  loam  suitable  in  one  case  will  not 
answer  in  another.  Fineness  and  porosity,  and 
as  little  shrinkage  in  being  dried  as  possible,  are 
indispensable  qualities.  The  mould  must  be  dried 
hard,  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  fluid  metal, 
which  will  otherwise  break  it  or  crumble  it  to 
dust,  and  spoil  'he  casting.  If  loam  is  Vx> 
9* 


102  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
close,  or  imporous,  it  will  retain  the  gases  developed 
by  the  heat  of  the  metal,  and  cause  either  the  metal 
to  boil  and  make  porous  castings,  or  in  the  worst 
case  cause  explosion,  and  throw  out  the  hot  metal. 
If  loam  shrinks  too  much  in  drying,  it  will  inevitably 
crack,  make  crevices  into  which  the  hot  metal  runs, 
and  what  is  still  worse,  some  parts  of  the  facing  of 
the  mould  will  be  pressed  back,  which  causes  uneven, 
rugged  castings.  The  most  important  quality  of  loam 
is  its  porosity.  The  heat  of  the  cast,  and  the  pre- 
sence of  gas-generating  material  in  every  part  of  the 
mould,  renders  it  necessary  that  the  gases  should 
escape  through  the  substance  of  the  mould,  while  it 
is  impervious  to  the  metal.  There  is  no  use  in  pierc- 
ing holes  by  the  pricker;  if  the  loam  is  too  strong, 
the  cast  will  boil. 

Moulding-loam  is  generally  artificially  composed 
of  common  brick-clay,  and  sharp-sand.  Instead 
of  the  latter,  old  coarse  foundry  sand,  or  used  core- 
sand,  or  burnt  brick-powder,  may  be  used  to  greater 
advantage.  The  quantity  of  sand  to  be  mixed  with  the 
clay  can  only  be  known  by  experience.  It  is  impossible 
to  give  receipts  for  compositions,  because  the  quality 
of  loam  as  well  as  that  of  the  sand  is  variable,  and  differs 
in  every  instance.  For  heavy,  thick  castings,  the  loam 
is  to  be  stronger  than  for  small  or  thin  castings. 


MOULDING.  103 

Cow-hair  obtained  from  tanneries  is  used  to  prevent 
the  cracking  of  loam  and  make  it  porous.  Mill-seeds, 
sawdust,  horse-dung,  hacked -hay  or  straw,  are  still 
more  extensively  used  than  cow-hair.  Loam  is  to  be 
worked  di.igently,  to  make  its  texture  as  uniform  as 
possible.  The  matter  to  be  mixed  with  it  is  to  be 
distributed  equally  through  the  whole  mass.  Each 
part  of  the  mould  requires  a  different  kind  of  loam : 
one  for  the  facing  of  the  mould,  and  another  for  the 
body  ;  a  stronger  loam  for  brick-work,  and  a  weaker 
one,  with  more  straw  or  horse-dung,  for  a  common 
mould.  Parts  of  a  mould  which  are  almost  surround- 
ed by  the  pattern,  and  of  course  by  the  metal,  are 
to  be  burned  in  a  fire  almost  to  a  red  heat,  not 
only  to  expel  water,  but  also  to  destroy  everything 
which  could  generate  gas,  and  to  destroy  every  par- 
ticle of  vegetable  and  animal  matter.  This  operation 
is  necessary  to  be  performed  on  all  cores,  and  such 
parts  of  a  mould  as  form  the  interior  of  it.  The 
gases  generated  in  a  loam  mould  are  of  a  complex 
nature  ;  there  are  gases  of  water — steam — carbonic 
acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and  ammoniacal  compositions 
which  are  not  determined.  The  flame  issuing  from 
a  loam  mould,  generally  burns  with  a  blueljght,  inter- 
spersed  with  greenish  yellow  streaks  and  specks. 


104   MOULDER'S  AND  POUNDER'S  POCKET  G\;IDE. 

Moulding  of  Simple  Round  Forms. — Articles  of 
a  round  form,  that  is,  a  spheroid,  or  a  segment  of  it, 
a  cylinder  and  its  auxiliaries,  are  moulded  by  meana 
of  a  loam-board  fastened  to  an  iron  spindle,  which 
may  be  turned  upon  an  imaginary  axis,  or  the  axis 
of  the  spindle.  Wherever  a  loam-mould  is  built  up, 
it  must  be  always  in  the  sweep  of  a  crane,  or  it  is  to 
be  built  in  that  pit  where  it  is  finally  to  be  cast.  We 
will  commence  our  illustration  by  the  moulding  of  a 
soap-kettle  in  the  pit.  A  soap-kettle — or  soap-pan — 
is  generally  partly  cylindrical,  with  a  round  bottom, 
broad  brim,  and  a  collar,  for  the  wooden  superstruc- 
ture of  planks  to  be  set  into  it.  All  kettles  are 
moulded  and  cast  in  an  inverted  position,  as  is  shown 
in  figure  21.  It  would  be  better  for  the  quality  of 
the  cast  if  kettles  could  be  cast  bottom  down,  but 
this  is  almost  impossible  on  account  of  the  core. 
The  moulding  of  a  kettle  is  represented  in  figure  21. 


Fig.  21. 


MOULDING.  105 

It  is  here  performed,  for  want  of  a  crane  in  the  pit, 
on  the  very  place  where  it  is  to  be  cast.  A  hole  is 
dug  in  the  floor  of  the  foundry  sufficiently  deep  to 
bury  the  whole  mould,  and  wide  enough  to  permit 
tne  moulder  to  walk  around  the  mould  when  he  is  at 
work.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  cast  a  round 
plate  or  ring  in  open  sand.  This  is  to  reach  at  least 
six  inches  into  the  kettle :  that  is,  its  smallest  dia- 
meter is  to  be  twelve  inches  smaller  than  the  shorter 
or  interior  diameter  of  the  kettle,  and  its  largest 
diameter  is  to  be  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  longer 
than  the  longest  diameter  of  the  pattern.  This  plate 
may  be  three-quarters  of  an  inch  or  one  inch  thick. 
It  is  placed  in  a  perfectly  level  position  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pit,  and  raised  by  bricks  to  the  height  of 
BIX  or  eight  inches  from  the  bottom.  In  the  centre 
of  this  ring-plate  a  pole  or  piece  of  cast  iron  is 
driven  in  the  ground,  and  covered  by  sand  to  protect 
it  against  heat.  In  this  pole  a  pan,  or  step,  is  cut 
for  the  pivot  of  the  spindle  to  move  in.  A  spindle 
of  one  and  a  half  or  two  inches  square  wrought  iron, 
having  a  round  bearing  at  its  upper  end,  and  a  steel 
point  at  its  lower  extremity,  is  now  erected ;  resting 
below  in  the  centre  step,  and  above  in  a  plank  laid 
across  the  pit,  borne  down  and  held  in  its  place  by 
weights  placed  upon  \t  at  the  extremities.  This 


106  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
spindle  is  to  stand  perfectly  plumb,  being  exactly  IP 
the  centre  of  the  foundation  plate.  To  this  spindle 
a  moveable  arm  is  screwed,  made  of  two  rods  of  fiat 
iron,  with  many  holes  in  it.  At  the  spindle  these 
two  flat  bars  are  bent  in  such  a  manner  as  to  catch 
two  corners  of  the  spindle,  and  be  immoveably  fast- 
ened to  it  by  two  screws.  In  other  cases  a  cast-iron 
forked  arm  is  made  with  holes  for  screwing  on  the 
loam-board,  and  a  spindle-box  with  pinching-screw 
for  adjustment.  To  this  arm  the  loam-board  is 
screwed,  which  is  an  inch  thick  pine  board,  clear  of 
knots.  The  loam-board  is  at  first  a  skeleton  of  the 
interior  of  the  kettle  with  the  brim,  and  that  slant- 
ing part  beyond  the  brim,  called  the  knee  ;  if  turned 
upon  the  axis  of  the  spindle,  it  will  describe  the  form 
and  size  of  the  interior  of  the  kettle.  In  commenc- 
ing the  mould,  a  four  inch  brick  wall  is  built  upon 
the  foundation  plate,  or  platform,  round,  so  as  to 
leave  two  inches  space  between  it  and  the  loam-board. 
At  the  height  of  six  inches  below  the  corner  of  the 
bottom,  a  layer  of  one  and  a  half  inch  iron  bars  is 
laid,  and  these  are  crossed  by  smaller  bars,  all 
walled-in  in  the  brick  work.  Upon  these  bars  the 
bricks  forming  the  crown  are  founded.  If  the  bot- 
tom is  round,  forms  half  a  sphere,  these  iron  bars 
ire  not  needed  ;  an  arch  may  be  sprung  of  bricks, 


MOULDING.  1 07 

which  generally  is  strong  enough  to  resist  the  pres- 
sure of  the  fluid  metal.  The  moulder  leaves  a  small 
opening  around  the  spindle,  serving  the  purpose  of 
a  drafthole  for  the  fire  which  is  to  be  kindled  inside. 
This  first  brick.wall  is  dried  by  a  stone  coal  or  char- 
coal fire,  kindled  inside  below  the  mould.  The 
loam-mortar  for  putting  up  the  wall,  is  to  be  porous, 
out  also  strong  ;  some  horse-dung  is  generally  mixed 
vith  it.  It  is  composed  mostly  of  sand,  and  the 
layers  of  mortar  are  from  half  an  inch  to  one  inch 
thick.  The  bricks  used  for  this  purpose  are  hard- 
burnt,  light,  but  such  as  have  not  been  melted, 
or  burned  too  hard.  Bricks  are  used  in  halves 
or  bats.  While  the  brick  wall  is  drying,  a  thin 
layer  of  loam  may  be  given  to  the  mould,  which 
here  constitutes  the  core,  in  case  the  work  is  pressing ; 
but  if  there  is  time,  it  is  better  to  dry  the  bricka 
first.  The  loam  may  after  this  be  increased  to  within 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  the  loam-board,  still  keeping 
up  the  fire,  and  drying  the  core  gradually.  The 
last  layer  of  loam  is  put  on  when  the  first  loam- 
coating  is  nearly  dry.  It  consists  of  finer  and 
stronger  loam.  It  is  free  from  horse-dung,  straw,  or 
any  other  admixture,  but  is  mixed  with  some  cow 
hair.  The  surface  is  finished  off  by  a  smooth  coa*. 
ing  of  wet  fine  loam,  the  redundancies  being  sweps 


108  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
off  by  the  loam-board,  which  has  been  washed  and 
freed  of  all  adherent  loam  and  straw.  As  the  sur- 
face gradually  dries,  it  is  painted  over,  by  means  of  a 
paint-brush,  with  a  mixture  of  charcoal-powder,  clay, 
and  water.  This  coating  forms  the  parting  between 
the  core  and  the  metal-thickness. 

The  loam-board  with  which  the  core  has  been 
formed  is  now  removed,  and  is  replaced  by  another 
board,  called  the  thickness  board.  The  edge  of  the 
thickness  board  describes  the  external  form  of  the 
kettle,  and  merely  touches  the  knee  made  by  the 
first  board.  We  see  here  the  use  of  the  knee :  it 
serves  not  only  for  the  more  perfect  closing  of  the 
mould  below,  but  it  is  the  standard  mark  of  the  loam- 
boards.  Over  the  nearly  dry  core  a  layer  of  porous 
sandy  loam  is  now  spread,  and  made  smooth  by  sweep- 
ing the  thickness  board  around  it.  This  layer  of 
loam  forms  the  exact  pattern  of  the  kettle  as  it  will 
be  after  casting.  When  well  dried,  this  layer  of 
loam  receives  a  blackwash  as  the  core  did,  and  is  to 
be  well  dried.  The  spindle  may  now  be  removed, 
for  there  is  no  more  use  for  it  in  this  instance. 
Over  the  first  foundation  plate,  or  platform,  is  now 
laid  another  platform,  whose  interior  diameter  is 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  knee,  so  that  this  ring 
when  laid  down  just  fits,  or  is  a  little  larger  than 


MOULDING.  109 

the  largest  part  of  the  core.  Upon  this  platform 
another  layer  of  loam  of  nearly  two  inches  thick  is 
laid,  and  smoothed  over  by  hand.  There  is  no  need 
of  a  smooth  surface.  As  long  as  the  loam  continues 
soft,  the  mould  is  kept  under  bars  of  iron  bent  in 
the  shape  of  the  bottom,  or  crown  of  the  mould, 
and  reaching  down  to  the  platform,  to  which  they 
attach  themselves  by  being  bent  under  the  platform. 
Two  or  three  of  such  bars  reach  all  over  the  kettle, 
others  may  be  shorter  and  reach  merely  along  the 
sides.  These  bars  are  laid  over  the  soft  loam,  and 
then  the  mould  is  gradually  dried.  When  nearly 
dry,  iron  hoops,  which  keep  together  the  rods,  are 
laid  around  the  mould,  and  fastened  to  the  rods  by 
means  of  wire.  The  whole  mould,  iron  and  all, 
receives  after  this  a  good  coating  of  straw  loam, 
with  horse-dung,  the  iron  bars  being  partly  covered 
with  it.  In  this  manner,  iron  and  loam  are  com- 
bined and  form  one  solid  part  of  the  mould.  The 
structure  of  the  mould  is  now  completed,  so  far  as 
the  form  is  concerned.  The  whole  is  now  thoroughly 
dried  or  baked  by  keeping  up  a  constant  fire  in  the 
interior  of  the  mould.  Fire  may  be  applied  on  the  out- 
side also.  In  this  instance,  which  is  that  of  moulding 
a  kettle  with  an  open  core,  not  so  much  fire  is  re- 
quired as  if  the  core  was  solid.  In  the  latter  case 
10 


110  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
it  requires  a  thorough  burning  ;  the  core  is  then  to 
be  made  red  hot;  but  in  this  instance  a  good  drying 
is  sufficient  to  secure  a  safe  cast.  In  twenty-four 
hours  the  mould  will  be  found  to  be  dry,  and  ready 
to  be  taken  apart. 

The  taking  apart  of  the  mould  is  done  by  means 
of  a  crane,  in  case  there  is  one  ;  otherwise  it  is  to 
be  done  by  hand,  by  a  pulley,  or  by  some  other 
means  which  are  sufficient  to  lift  the  cape  or  cope. 
The  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to  lift,  by  means  of  a 
sharp  crow-bar,  the  platform  of  the  cope  from  the 
platform  of  the  core,  that  is,  to  loosen  the  first  from 
the  latter  part,  after  which  it  may  be  lifted  and  set 
upon  a  pair  of  timbers  over  the  pit,  or  on  any  other 
convenient  place  where  it  is  not  exposed  to  moisture. 
When  the  cope  is  removed,  the  "  thickness"  is  peeled 
off  from  the  core,  the  draft-hole  in  the  crown  is  closed 
by  a  brick-bat  and  plastered  over  with  loam.  The 
hole  in  the  centre  of  the  cope  is  also  filled  up  to 
within  two  inches,  all  the  damages  on  the  mould 
repaired,  and  these  patches  dried.  After  this  th« 
mould  receives  a  blackwashing,  and  is  then  finally 
dried  once  more. 

Blackwash. — The  black  wash  for  parting  consists 
chiefly  of  charcoal-powder,  and  a  little  clay.  This 
is  almost  entirely  lost  in  taking  the  moull  apart. 


MOULDING.  Ill 

and  the  remainder  is  lost  in  sleeking  the  mould  by 
the  finishing  clay-wash.  Blackwash  is  always  on 
hand  in  the  foundry;  it  is  contained  in  the  black- 
wash  tubs,  of  which  there  is  one  for  parting  and  one 
for  finishing.  The  latter  is  composed  of  finely  ground 
plumbago,  often  mixed  with  a  little  charcoal,  the 
•whole  diluted  with  horse-dung  water,  or  a  solution 
of  the  soluble  parts  of  horse-dung.  This  blackwash 
is  frequently  mixed  with  pease-meal  or  other  meal, 
glue,  and  extracts  from  the  refuse  of  tanneries ;  but 
all  these  latter  compositions  are  more  or  less  too  close, 
and  cause  a  dull  surface  to  the  east.  The  first  is 
the  best,  if  applied  not  too  much  diluted. 

The  sleek-washing  as  well  as  blackwashing  is  to 
be  done  with  proper  caution,  so  as  not  to  injure  the 
sharp  outlines  of  the  mould ;  it  is  better  if  the  first 
of  these  two  operations  can  be  dispensed  with,  and 
the  mould  finished  just  as  the  loam-board  left  it. 
This  latter  can  be  done  in  following  the  plan  to  be 
described  in  cylinder  forming,  which  is  also  appli- 
cable in  this  case ;  that  is,  working  without  thick- 
nesses. When  the  parts  of  the  mould  are  properly 
dried,  it  is  put  together  again ;  but  before  this  is 
done,  a  hole  of  two  inches  round  is  cut  in  the  brim 
of  the  cope,  to  connect  the  gates  with,  for  casting. 
'  ^he  cope  is  to  rest  firmly  upon  the  core,  that  is,  it 


112  MOULDER'S  AND  POUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDK. 
is  to  be  put  exactly  in  that  position  in  which  it  was 
before,  and  shut  tightly  at  the  knee.  A  pipe  is  now 
laid  below  the  foundation  of  the  mould,  which  pipe 
is  to  be  carried  through  the  sand  which  is  subse^ 
quently  rammed  in,  to  conduct  the  gas  from  the 
interior  of  the  core  to  the  surface.  This  pipe  may 
be  either  an  iron  pipe,  or  may  be  of  baked  clay,  or 
it  may  be  a  space  left  in  the  sand.  The  latter  is 
objectionable,  because  it  may  fill  up,  and  cause  an 
explosion  by  stopping  the  escape  of  the  gas.  The 
mould  is  now  rammed  in  with  sand,  which  is  done  by 
iron  stampers  with  strokes  in  rapid  succession.  This 
operation  is  performed  by  at  least  three  hands  at 
once,  to  break  the  vibrations  caused  by  stamping,  and 
prevent  injury  to  the  mould  in  consequence.  With  the 
ramming-in  of  the  mould,  the  gate  for  the  reception 
of  the  metal  is  to  be  provided  for.  This  we  con- 
template to  be  in  the  lower  part  of  the  mould  ;  it 
is  frequently  done  from  the  top,  but  the  latter  mode 
is  not  quite  safe,  and  never  makes  as  sound  castings 
as  the  way  proposed  here.  The  gate  may  be  formed 
by  a  wooden  pattern  or  pin,  as  in  green-sand  mould 
ing,  but  this  is  at  best  a  very  doubtful  operation  ir 
its  consequences ;  for  the  gate  will  be  a  long  one  ii 
all  cases,  and  in  pulling  out  the  pin,  sand  may  droj 
in  the  gate  and  stop  it  up  altogether,  or  drop  s» 


MOULDING.  113 

nuch  siml  as  to  injure  the  casting.  The  best  plan 
is  to  have  pipes  ready  made  of  burned  loam  ;  such 
pipes  may  be  conical,  and  tapered  so  that  the  smaller 
end  of  one  pipe  will  fit  in  the  larger  end  of  another. 
In  this  way  any  length  of  gate  may  be  formed,  per- 
fectly secure  against  damages  from  stamping.  On 
the  top  of  the  mould  a  flow-gate  is  set,  which  may 
be  also  formed  of  one  of  burned  loam-pipes,  or  it 
may  be  moulded  in  the  sand.  The  first  plan,  how- 
ever, is  preferable.  The  whole  space  around  the 
mould  is  in  this  way  filled  up  with  sand,  and  tightly 
rammed.  Over  this  sand,  that  is,  over  the  mould 
covered  by  the  sand,  pieces  of  pig-iron  or  other  heavy 
pieces  of  iron  are  laid,  or  iron  beams  tied  down  by 
screws  which  reach  to  the  platform,  and  are  fastened 
to  the  latter,  to  prevent  the  least  motion  of  the 
mould  upwards,  for  such  a  motion  would  spoil  the 
mould.  Before  casting,  the  flow-gate  is  covered  with 
a  dry  ball  of  loam,  to  be  removed  when  the  fluid 
metal  shows  itself  in  the  gate  and  the  mould  is  filled 
with  iron.  Over  that  channel  or  pipe,  communi- 
cating with  the  interior  of  the  core,  a  handful  of 
dry  wood  shavings,  or  dry  straw,  is  laid,  and  kin- 
dled as  soon  as  the  hot  metal  is  being  poured  in. 

The  stopping  up  of  the  flow-gate  is  a  necessary 
operation,  and  the  flow-gate  itself  also  is  necessary 
10* 


114  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKEP  GUIUW. 
in  all  cases  of  large  castings.  The  flow-gate  IH 
very  useful,  because  it  is  always  put  on  the  highest 
point,  or  at  a  point  to  which  most  of  the  light  impuri- 
ties which  float  on  the  melted  metal  are  very  apt  to 
flow.  If  the  flow-gate  is  placed  in  such  a  situation, 
the  impurities  will  naturally  flow  into  it.  For  these 
reasons  the  flow-gate  is  always  made  wider  than  the 
cast-gate.  The  stopping  of  the  flow-gate  until  the 
Kietal  appears,,  is  an  operation  equally  important.  If 
the  flow-gate,  or  any  other  aperture  to  the  interior  of 
the  mould,  is  open,  the  gases  or  hot  air  will  rush  to 
the  opening  with  a  force  equal  to  the  space  of  the 
mould  and  the  amount  of  hot  metal  to  be  poured  into  it. 
This  rush  of  air  is  very  apt  to  tear  loose  some  loam  or 
sand  of  the  mould,  or  even  break  the  mould.  By  stop- 
ping the  openings,  a  certain  amount  of  confined  gas 
finds  its  way  through  the  sand  or  loam  of  the  mould, 
and  opens  the  pores  of  the  mould.  This  stopping  up 
of  the  air  channels  is  the  safest  way  of  preventing 
explosions  and  making  good  castings.  In  case  there 
is  no  flow-gate  to  a  mould,  and  only  a  cast-gate,  the 
latter  is  to  be  kept  full  all  the  time  during  which 
metal  is  poured  in.  If  there  is  an  interruption  of 
the  flow,  and  the  rush  of  air  finds  its  way  through 
the  cast-gate,  it  is  very  apt  to  cool  the  metal,  tear 
some  sand  loose,  and  by  that  means  stop  up  the  gate, 


MOULDING.  H5 

or  even  break  the  mould.  Such  accidents  happen 
frequently,  and  are  the  common  causes  of  failure  jri 
founding.  When  castings  are  made  by  a  single  cast- 
gate,  it  is  advisable  to  make  a  reservoir  for  the 
fluid  metal  at  the  top,  that  is,  to  make  the  mouth  of 
the  gate  very  wide,  and  skim  the  metal  -well  to  pre- 
vent the  flowing  in  of  any  impurities.  In  moulding 
hollow-ware,  the  wedge-shaped  gits  are  made  partly 
for  causing  an  easy  separation  of  the  git  from  the 
cast,  but  chiefly  to  have  a  git  of  large  capacity  and 
small  opening,  to  be  kept  full  while  casting. 

Gras  Pipes. — The  air  pipes  leading  from  the  core 
of  a  heavy  casting  ought  to  be  made  of  iron,  for 
these  pipes  have  an  important  office  to  perform.  In 
case  such  a  pipe  is  stopped  up,  an  explosion  is 
almost  inevitable.  The  atmospheric  air  confined  ic 
the  hollow  space  of  the  core,  and  that  air  contained 
in  the  pores  of  the  sand,  mixed  with  the  carbonic 
oxide  gas  generated  of  the  vegetable  or  animal  mat- 
ter in  the  mould,  will  form  an  explosive  mixture  of 
the  most  dangerous  kind,  and  will  destroy  any  mould 
if  it  explodes.  The  mouth  of  the  air  pipe  may  be 
covered  with  burning  shavings,  but  it  is  advisable  first 
to  lay  over  the  mouth  of  it  a  piece  of  wire-gauze, 
tc  prevent  the  falling  in  of  any  dirt  or  fire.  If 
there  is  fire  in  the  pipe  before  the  air  is  moving. 


116     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  QU.DE. 
t;hat  is,  before  there  is  any  metal   in  the  mould, 
an  explosion  will  take  place. 

Removing  of  the  Core. — As  soon  as  the  casting 
is  done,  the  mould  is  dug  up,  and  a  portion  of  the 
-core  removed  before  the  cast  is  entirely  cooled. 
Cylindrical  castings  are  liable  to  be  split  by  the  core, 
if  the  core  is  too  strong.  For  these  reasons  the 
core  is  made  chiefly  of  sand,  and  only  enough  of 
clay  is  used  to  keep  it  together.  Brick  cores  are 
preferable  to  loam  cores,  if  put  together  with 
Band  and  thick  joints,  because  bricks  offer  some 
resistance  to  the  fluid  metal  by  their  mass,  and  are 
easily  moved  by  a  strong  power,  such  as  metal  in 
the  act  of  contraction.  This  is  one  of  the  evils 
attending  iron  core  pipes.  If  there  is  no  hay-rope 
or  a  thick  layer  of  sand  around  a  core-iron,  the  cast- 
ing will  split  upon  the  core  before  it  is  cool,  and 
before  it  can  be  prevented.  In  all  cases  it  is  advisa- 
ble to  remove  the  core  as  soon  as  possible,  and  if  it 
cannot  be  taken  out  altogether,  then  remove  at  least 
a  part  of  it,  that  is,  cut  it  in  some  place  so  as  to 
afford  room  for  the  contracting  cast. 

Moulding  without  Thickness. — As  an  illustration 
of  moulding  in  loam  without  thickness,  which  is  cer- 
tainly the  most  advantageous  plan  of  loam-mould- 
ing, we  will  describe  the  moulding  of  a  cylinder 


MOULDING.  117 

The  operation  is  similar  in  all  cases :  whether  for  a 
steam-engine,  a  blast-machine,  or  a  cylinder  for  an; 
other  purpose ;  for  illustration,  however,  we  prefer 
that  of  a  steam-engine,  as  the  most  complicated.  In 
cases  of  narrow  cylinders  it  is  preferred  to  have 
the  core  fixed,  and  move  the  cope,  particularly 
where  the  latter  is  to  be  divided.  Dividing  the 
cope  ought  to  be  avoided,  if  possible,  for  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  make  a  correct  casting  in 
such  a  mould.  We  will  take  a  case  for  illustration 
where  core  and  cope  are  each  in  one  piece,  and  the 
latter  stationary,  that  is,  moulded  in  that  place 
where  the  cylinder  is  to  be  cast.  In  this  instance 
the  mould  for  the  cope  is  put  in  the  pit,  the  same  as 
the  mould  of  the  pan,  above  described,  and  founded 
the  same  way  upon  a  platform.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  make  the  cope  above  ground,  even  if  there  is  a 
crane  strong  enough  to  carry  it  to  the  pit.  In 
a  mould  like  this,  a  crevice  may  open  in  trans- 
porting it,  and  give  access  to  hot  metal,  which 
may  frustrate  the  purpose  for  which  the  mould  has 
been  made.  In  figure  22,  the  moulding  of  a  short 
cylinder  is  represented,  such  as  is  now  used  in  steam- 
engines  to  turn  the  screw  propellers  of  steamboats. 
A  pattern  of  the  steam-ways  is  made  in  wood,  solid, 
as  represented  in  figure  23,  which  figure  shows  a  side 


118    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
elevation,  and  a  view  from  above.     This  block  has  the 
length  of  the  cylinder  between  its  flanges,  and  in 

Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


case  there  are  any  mouldings  in  the  flange  whicn 
run  across  the  steam-ways,  they  are  to  be  moulded 
in  the  wood.  The  three  core-prints  are  of  con- 
siderable length,  because  the  cores  find  here  their 
chief  support.  The  middle  core  finds  another  sup 
port  in  the  opening  for  the  exhaust  pipe,  as  shown  in 
figure  23.  One  side  of  the  pattern  is  hollow  and 
cylindrical,  fitting  the  exterior  diameter  of  the  cylin- 
der, or  the  sweep  of  the  loam-board.  Having  la-d 


MOULDING.  119 

the  platform,  erected  the  spindle,  and  screwed  in  the 
loam-board — 'which  is  almost  a  straight  board,  with 
the  exception  of  the  two  knees,  one  above  and  one 
below,  and  the  moulding  or  hoops  around  the  cylin- 
der— the  brick  enclosure  is  laid,  leaving  from  two 
to  two  and  a  half  inches  space  for  loam.  The  pat- 
tern of  the  steam-ways  is  fastened,  just  touching 
the  loam-board  in  its  travel  upon  its  axis,  and  walled 
in,  giving  it  a  loam  coating  where  the  bricks  touch 
it.  After  the  brick  wall  is  nearly  dry,  a  coating  of 
loam  is  given ;  this  loam  may  be  pretty  strong,  and 
mixed  with  hay,  for  the  pressure  upon  it  will  be 
great,  and  if  the  loam  gives  way  to  this  pressure, 
the  cylinder  will  be  defaced.  This  coating  is  super- 
ficially dried,  and  another  coat  of  hair-loam  laid  on, 
which  is  to  reach  very  near  the  loam-board,  so  that 
the  last  coating  is  but  a  little  thicker  than  a  clay- 
wash.  In  drying  the  previous  loam  coats,  and 
making  the  coats  thin,  an  almost  perfectly  smooth 
surface  of  the  mould  may  be  obtained.  It  will  be 
as  round  and  straight  as  a  turned  and  polished  iron 
cylinder,  and  of  course  the  casting  will  be  similar  to 
the  moulding.  Clay  which  shrinks  a  great  deal,  or 
is  plastered  on  in  too  heavy  coats,  causes  uneven 
and  rugged  surfaces  in  the  mould,  which  is  the  case 
also  if  the  ground  is  not  dry  before  the  last  washing 


120  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
is  performed.  A  good  facing  is  as  smooth,  sharp, 
and  distinct  in  its  outlines  as  a  well  made  pattern 
of  wood.  The  blackwashing  is  here  to  be  the  very 
last  operation,  and  to  be  well  performed,  and  when 
dry  must  be  polished  by  a  large  sleeker  fitting  the 
circle  of  the  cylinder.  Before  the  blackwashing 
of  the  cylinder  is  performed,  however,  the  steam- 
ways  are  moulded  ;  while  the  cylinder  is  under  the 
influence  of  the  fire.  The  pattern  of  the  steam-ways 
is  covered  by  hair-loam,  leaving  the  core-prints  pro- 
jecting, so  as  to  afford  access  to  the  interior  through 
the  holes  left  by  the  core-prints.  The  pattern 
receives  two  or  three  coatings  of  loam,  sufficient  to 
make  the  loam  at  least  two  inches  thick.  Close  to 
the  brick,  or  as  far  off  as  the  square  of  the  pattern 
goes,  a  groove  is  cut  in  the  loam,  around  the  pattern, 
indicated  by  the  dotted  line,  figure  23.  This  groove 
cuts  the  loam  nearly  through,  so  that  the  mould 
may  be  separated  at  this  mark.  The  mould  around 
the  steam-ways  pattern  is  provided  with  iron,  bent 
around  it,  and  also  irons  bent  around  the  cylinder. 
These  irons  meet  at  the  joint  or  parting,  and  are 
secured  in  their  places  by  wire  and  loam,  the  ends 
of  the  irons  at  the  parting  terminating  in  hooks. 
Fastening  a  mould  in  this  way  by  iron  straps  is  con- 
venient and  advantageous,  and  answers  every  pur- 


MOULDING.  121 

pose,  if  the  mould  is  made  strong  enougn.  If  a 
cope  is  made  too  weak  because  of  the  iron  straps, 
the  above  is  a  bad  fastening,  and  the  cause  of  fail- 
ures or  imperfect  castings.  Fastening  a  mould  with 
iron  is  expensive,  and  where  it  can  be  avoided  it  is 
advisable  so  to  do.  In  this  instance  it  can  be  avoided, 
and  the  mould  may  be  made  serviceable  without  iron 
fastenings.  When  the  steam-ways  pattern  is  re- 
moved, and  the  mould  ready  to  be  closed  again,  it  is 
simply  closed  and  secured  by  brick-work,  which  latter 
is  commenced  at  the  bottom.  While  the  brick-work 
is  progressing,  the  cope  of  the  steam-ways  is  secured 
temporarily  by  some  wire  fastened  around  the  cyliru- 
der.  The  brick-work  forming  the  enclosure  to  this 
part  of  the  mould  is  dried  by  external  fire,  or  the 
united  heat  of  the  fire  inside  and  outside  of  the 
mould. 

The  cores,  forming  the  steam-ways,  must  be  strong 
and  porous.  They  are  to  be  as  long  as  the  hollow 
they  are  to  form  in  the  casting,  to  which  is  to  be 
added  the  length  of  the  core-prints.  Cores  of  this 
description  are  generally  moulded  in  a  wooden  core- 
box;  but  this  plan  is  not  to  be  recommended,  for 
wood  will  twist  and  warp,  particularly  where  it  is 
wet  on  one  side  and  charring  hot  on  the  other,  as 
is  the  case  in  this  instance.  The  best  plan  of  mak  • 
11 


122  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GVIDE. 
ing  the  cores,  is  to  make  a  wood  pattern  of  a  core- 
box,  and  east  it  at  once  in  iron  and  in  open  sand. 
In  such  an  iron  box,  a  good  and  correct  core  may 
be  made  without  much  labour.  The  cores  for  the 
steam-ways  are  made  of  strong  loam,  and  provided 
with  several  core-irons,  which  are  rods  of  quarter 
or  half  inch  square  iron,  bent  in  the  curves  of  the 
core.  The  core-irons  are  dipped  in  strong  clay- 
water  before  they  are  buried  in  the  core. 

Besides  the  core-irons,  strings  of  hemp,  cotton,  or 
straw,  are  laid  in  the  core,  which  burn  out  in  drying 
and  form  channels  for  the  escape  of  air.  A  great 
many  of  these  strings  may  be  used,  but  they  must 
be  thin,  so  as  to  arrest  the  fluid  iron,  in  case  any  of  it 
finds  access  to  the  interior  of  the  core.  The  core-loarn 
may  contain  cow-hair  if  necessary,  but  this  is  a 
matter  which  depends  entirely  on  the  quality  of  the 
loam  of  which  the  core  is  made.  The  cores,  after 
being  moulded,  are  heated  to  redness  in  a  coal  fire, 
with  liberal  access  of  air,  to  expel  every  trace  oi 
water,  vegetable  and  animal  matter,  and  carbon. 
When  well  burned,  the  cores  receive  a  gocd  black- 
washing  of  black-lead  and  clay,  as  little  as  possible 
of  the  latter.  These  cores  are  the  very  last  to  be  pat 
in  the  mould. 

Gore  for  the  Cylinder. — While  the  cope  of  the 


MOULDING 


123 


cylinder  is  progressing,  the  core  for  it  is  moulded 
somewhere  near  it,  on  the  floor  of  the  foundry,  but 
within  the  sweep  of  the  crane.  The  core  is  founded 
upon  an  iron  platform,  which  has  its  snugs  inside, 
and  its  diameter  is  six  in.ches  less  than  the  diameter 
of  the  interior  of  the  cope.  The  platform  of  the  core 
is  to  rest  upon  the  platform  of  the  cope.  The  core  ia 


Fig.  24. 


umply  built  of  bricks,  finished  in  loam,  blackened 
and  polished,  and  is  then  ready  to  be  set  in  its  cope. 
The  core  has  two  knees,  one  below  and  one  above, 
which  are  at  an  angle  of  45°  These  two  kneea 
are  necessary  to  keep  the  core  in  its  position.  In 
case  the  metal  is  liable  to  porosity,  which  is  frequently 
the  case  with  some  of  the  anthracite  iron,  and  gene- 
rally so  with  charcoal  iron,  it  is  necessary  to  prolong 
the  mould  of  the  cylinder,  above  its  flange,  as  shown 


124    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

in  the  drawing,  figure  24,  into  which  the  sullage  rises. 
In  cast  iron  which  does  not  form  holes,  or  raise  any 
sullage,  this  precaution  is  not  required.  Upon  the 
sullage  piece,  or  in  want  of  that,  upon  the  upper 
edge  of  the  cylinder,  the  flow-gates  are  set,  of  which 
there  are  to  be  at  least  two  or  three,  and  more  if  the 
iron  is  doubtful  and  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
large.  Before  the  core  is  put  in  its  place,  two  rests 
for  the  steam-way  cores  are  cut  into  it.  The  steam- 
way  cores  are  suspended  only  at  their  two  ends, 
and  liable  to  be  lifted  out  at  the  centre  core.  A 
deep  rest  in  that  core,  or  an  iron  fastening  which 
passes  through  that  core,  is  required  to  secure  it  in 
its  place,  when  the  cylinder  core  is  set  and  well  secur- 
ed, resting  upon  the  platform  of  the  cope,  where  it  is 
secured  by  iron  wedges.  For  these  reasons  the  knees 
of  the  mould  may  be  made  to  catch  before  the  platform 
plates  touch  one  another,  and  the  space  left  between 
them  can  be  filled  up  by  iron  wedges  or  scraps. 
The  cores  of  the  steam-ways,  when  put  in,  are  well 
secured  to  the  core,  and  then  the  cope  of  the  steam- 
ways  put  in  its  place.  The  cores  are  after  this 
secured  in  the  openings  left  by  the  core-prints  of  the 
pattern,  and  well  stopped  up  by  moist  loam,  which 
is  to  be  dried.  In  many  cases,  that  straight  part 
of  the  steam- w\ys  cope  where  the  cores  pass  through, 


MOULDING.  125 

is  covered  by  an  iron  plate,  coated  with  loam,  and 
the  core-irons  fastened  to  this  plate.  This  caution 
is  unnecessary,  as  the  projecting  cores  can  be  well 
secured  by  dry  brick-bats.  The  mode  of  fastening, 
however,  depends  very  much  on  the  size  and  form 
of  the  steam-box,  and  the  form  of  the  cores. 

The  burying  of  the  mould  and  ramming-in  of  the 
sand  is  done  in  the  usual  way,  but  here  the  space 
below  the  mould  is  filled  with  sand  and  well  secured, 
to  prevent  the  hot  metal  entering  below  the  core,  in 
case  the  lower  knee  does  not  fit  tightly,  which  in 
this  case  is  always  doubtful,  and  cannot  be  secured 
beforehand.  The  interior  of  the  core  is  also  filled 
with  sand,  if  there  is  any  doubt  of  its  being 
strong  enough  and  tight.  It  is  better  when  there  is  no 
sand  in  the  core,  at  least  but  very  little  in  the  bot- 
tom of  it.  The  opening  of  the  core  at  the  top  is 
covered  by  an  iron  plate  which  is  well  secured, 
leaving  but  a  small  opening  for  the  escape  of  the 
gases ;  which  opening  is,  as  in  any  other  instance, 
covered  by  a  piece  of  wire  gauze  and  burning  straw. 
The  whole  mould  is  covered,  as  well  as  the  core-plate, 
with  a  load  of  iron  or  screws,  to  prevent  any  motion 
of  the  core  or  cope  by  the  static  pressure  of  the 
fluid  metal,  for  the  le^st  lifting  will  inevitably 
11* 


126    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
destroy  the  cast.    The  cast-gate  is  at  the  lower  flange, 
and  the  metal  is  to  rise  gradually  from  below. 

The  cores  of  the  steam-ways  are  often  of  such 
forms  as  not  so  easily  to  be  secured  in  their  places, 
which  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  middle,  or 
exhaust  core.  In  this,  the  assumed  case,  there  is  no 
difficulty ;  for  we  have  two  strong  core-prints,  and  the 
core  cannot  be  large,  as  the  steam-chest  is  but  small. 
If  a  core-print  can  be  given  on  each  side  of  the 
chest,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  at  all,  for  then  the 
core  has  three  points  to  rest  upon,  and  can  be  made 
safe  enough.  If  the  other  two  cores  are  strong 
enough  to  take  strong  core-irons,  there  is  no  danger 
of  their  failing.  Where  such  advantages  cannot 
be  had,  and  where  the  cores  are  in  danger  of  being 
lifted  off  their  seats,  it  is  necessary  to  secure  the 
cores  by  chaplets,  which  are  put  between  the  cores 
and  the  cope  of  the  steam-ways,  for  there  are  none 
applicable  to  the  core  of  the  cylinder. 

The  use  of  chaplets  in  the  steam-ways  cannot 
be  recommended,  if  it  can  be  avoided  by  any 
means.  The  chaplets  must  be  strong  and  of  good 
wrought  iron,  or  the  fluid  iron  will  melt  or  dissolve  the 
chaplets,  and  the  effect  is  worse  than  if  they  had  not 
been  used ;  for  the  moulder  depended  upon  a  support 
which  failed,  and  would  have  done  better  without 


MOULDING.  127 

supports.  If  chaplets  are  not  made  of  good  and  very 
pure  wrought  iron,  they  are  liable  to  melt,  or  are 
dissolved  in  the  mass  of  cast  iron.  The  greater 
the  amount  of  the  latter  and  the  longer  it  keeps 
fluid,  and  the  hotter  it  is,  the  greater  is  the  danger 
of  the  chaplet  being  destroyed.  Impure  iron,  or 
iron  which  contains  much  cinder,  or  thick  scales  of 
hammer-slag,  is  apt  to  produce  holes  in  the  casting, 
for  the  oxygen  of  the  scales,  or  cinder,  will  combine 
with  the  carbon  of  the  cast  iron  and  form  carbonic 
oxide,  which  cannot  escape,  as  it  is  in  the  interior 
of  the  casting,  and  the  iron  next  to  the  mould  is 
generally  chilled  before  such  gas  appears. 

General  Remarks  on  Loam- Moulding. — Precau- 
tions which  are  to  be  taken  in  loam-moulding  m 
general,  are  to  be  particularly  observed  in  moulding 
steam  cylinders,  for  here  the  object  is  to  make  a 
smooth,  well  finished  casting,  and  one  of  compact 
sound  metal,  free  of  pores  or  holes.  To  accomplish 
this,  particular  attention  must  be  given  to  the  following 
requisites :  A  strong  but  still  a  porous  loam ;  drying  in 
coats ;  a  well  smoothed  facing  before  the  blackening 
is  put  on  ;  well  burnt  cores  for  the  steam-ways,  and 
the  air-holes  in  these  so  small  and  so  arranged,  as 
to  prevent  any  possible  entrance  of  hot  iron  into 
these  air  channels ;  the  absence  of  all  chaplets  if 


128    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
possible :  and  every  part  of  the  mould  well  dried.    The 
bearing  down  of  the  mould,  and  the  stamping  in,  are 
operations  which  are  in  all  cases  the  same. 

If  there  are  any  square  or  unusual  forms  on  a 
cylinder,  as,  for  example,  if  one  or  both  flanges  are 
square,  or  if  there  are  extra  steam-ways,  or  orna- 
ments, all  such  forms  are  made  in  wood  or  in 
metal  (the  latter  is  preferable),  buried  in  the  mould, 
and  removed  before  the  finishing  of  the  mould. 

Irregular  Forms. — Where  forms  are  to  be  mould- 
ed which  do  not  permit  the  use  of  the  spindle,  a 
loam-mould  is  made  either  by  hand,  or  over  a  wood 
pattern.  There  are  also  cases  where  both  instances 
happen  in  one  "mould.  We  will  illustrate  this  by 
giving  an  instance  of  the  first  and  an  instance  of  the 
latter  case.  In  figure  25,  a  bent  pipe  is  represented, 
which  cannot  well  be  moulded  in  sand,  and  for  which 

Fig.  25. 


MOULDING.  129 

a  loam-core  is  to  be  made  in  every  instance,  It 
may  be  moulded  in  sand  or  in  loam.  This  pipe 
forming  a  knee,  is  bent  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
the  moulding  over  a  wood  pattern  and  in  sand  almost 
out  of  the  question.  The  first  step  taken  is  to  make 
a  drawing  of  the  actual  size  of  the  object  upon  a 
board,  and  in  drawing  two  or  three  sections  of  it, 
giving  sufficient  length  for  the  core-prints.  This 
board  is  given  to  the  blacksmith,  and  one  or 
more  bars  of  iron  bent  in  the  shape  of  the  core,  and 
these  bars  united  to  form  the  core-iron.  If  the 
pipe  is  more  than  eight  inches  in  diameter,  these 
bars  are  to  be  laid  -around  small  rings,  forming  in 
this  way  an  open  channel  in  the  centre  of  the  core. 
These  iron  bars  are  covered  with  hay-rope  as  usual, 
and  then  by  loam,  which  latter  is  laid  on  by  hand, 
referring  repeatedly  to  the  drawing.  The  last  loam 
coating  is  thin  and  well  smoothed  off,  before  the 
parting-blackwash  is  given.  In  such  cases  as  this, 
it  is  all  important  to  have  the  flanges  at  the  right 
distance  and  in  correct  angles  ;  and  as  such  castings 
generally  are  designed  to  fill  a  space  or  form  a  con- 
nexion between  two  pipes,  it  is  necessary  to  form  a 
skeleton  pipe  of  two  boards,  of  which  each  fits  to 
the  flange  of  the  corresponding  pipe.  Such  a  skele- 
ton is  easily  formed  bj  nailing  boards  together  in 


130    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
that  place  where  the  pipe  is  to  be.     Figure  26  will 
show  how  it  is  performed.     The  boards  are  fitted  and 
nailed  together,  stayed  by  some  lath,  and  the  place  of 
the  flanges  marked  by  scribing  around  them.     Over 

Fig.  26. 


this  another  skeleton  of  boards  is  made,  so  as  to  have 
the  dimensions  of  the  pipe  inside  which  are  here  out- 
side, with  the  addition  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch  for 
each  foot  in  the  length  of  the  pipe,  for  shrinkage.  In 
this  latter  skeleton  the  inner  diameter  of  the  pipes  is 
marked  and  cut  out,  the  newly  made  core  laid  in  this 
board  skeleton,  in  the  exact  position  in  which  the  new 
pipe  is  to  be  attached  to  the  other  pipes.  The  core 
is  fastened  in  this  position  to  the  skeleton,  and  the 
"  thickness,"  which  of  course  includes  the  flanges, 
is  laid  on  the  core,  and  gently  dried.  When  the 
thickness  is  so  far  dried  as  to  be  secure  against 
warping,  it  is  removed  from  the  skeleton  boards, 
dried,  blackened,  and  the  cope  put  on.  If  the  pipe 


MOULDING.  131 

is  heavy  the  cope  is  to  be  fastened  with  iron,  taking 
care  to  have  the  parting  free.  Moulds  for  light 
pipes  may  he  secured  hy  a  succession  of  wire  fasten- 
ings which  are  laid  at  certain  distances  around  the 
cope.  The  parting  of  the  cope  is  done  as  usual,  by 
cutting  two  grooves  along  the  pipe  in  such  a  direction 
as  to  divide  the  cope  into  two  halves,  but  so  that 
each  half  may  be  lifted  off  the  core.  If  the  flanges 
or  the  thickness  break  off  in  removing  the  cope  there 
is  no  harm  done,  if  the  core  is  not  damaged  in  this 
operation.  After  the  usual  finish  of  the  facing,  the 
mould  may  be  put  together,  and  rammed  in  sand 
as  usual.  In  this  case  the  core  cannot  be  kept  in 
its  place  without  chaplets,  and  a  liberal  number  of 
them  is  to  be  distributed  between  the  core  and  the 
cope.  This  pipe  is  rammed  in  and  cast  in  the  usual 
manner. 

When  the  object  to  be  moulded  presents  more 
complicated  forms  than  the  one  represented,  the 
experience  of  the  moulder  must  be  his  guide  in  form- 
ing the  plan  of  the  mould.  Analogous  processes 
are  here  everywhere,  but  it  is  the  sagacity  of  the 
moulder  which  gives  to  the  most  complicated  forms 
tangibility,  which  analyzes  a  pattern,  and  finds  a 
mode  of  execution  in  cases  where  success  at  first, 
sight  appears  to  be  impossible.  If  the  form  of  a 


132  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
pattern  does  not  happen  to  be  divisible  into  two 
parts,  or  permit  a  mould  of  two  parts,  there  is  no 
objection  to  dividing  it  into  three,  four,  and  mor« 
parts,  but  it  is  a  rule  to  make  as  few  partings  as 
possible.  In  every  mould,  it  is  to  be  a  standard 
rule  to  provide  liberally  for  the  escape  of  the 
gases.  If  forms  are  to  be  moulded  which  require 
more  than  two  platforms,  there  is  no  objection  to 
taking  as  many  as  may  secure  the  greatest  advan- 
tage and  security  to  the  mould. 

Oval  Forms. — Oval,  curved,  or  triangular  forms 
must  be  traced  by  corresponding  platform-plates, 
for  no  application  of  the  spindle  is  possible  in 
these  cases.  For  example,  to  mould  an  oval  bath- 
ing-tub, without  a  pattern,  a  foundation  plate  in 
the  form  of  the  upper  side  of  the  tub  is  cast  in 
open  sand.  There  is  no  need  of  its  being  solid — 
it  may  be  an  oval  ring.  Figure  27  represents  the 


Fig.  27. 


moulding  of  such  a  tub.    The  loam-board  A  is  guided 
by  hand  around  the  platform,  and  if  kept  in  close 


MOULDING.  ]  33 

contact  with  the  edge  of  the  plate,  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  a  correct  mould.  If  there  are 
any  projections,  or  departures  from  the  regular  form, 
they  are  made  by  hand.  Curved  forms  are  made 
in  a  way  similar  to  the  above.  A  core,  or  a  mould 
to  an  elbow  pipe,  is  moulded  on  a  platform  which  has 
the  form  of  the  curved  pipe,  as  shown  in  figure  28. 

Fig.  28.. 


The  loam-board  A  can  make  only  the  current  part 
of  the  mould,  also  a  mouth  or  bell-shaped  widening  ; 
but  if  there  are  any  flanges,  for  these  a  wood  pattern 
is  to  be  made.  In  this  instance  two  halves  of  a 
pipe-core  are  made ;  and  these  joined  by  moist  loam 
and  wire.  In  most  instances  of  this  kind  a  wood 
pattern  of  the  object  is  made,  and  this  moulded  in 
sand  ;  but  as  the  core  of  such  forms  cannot  well  be 
moulded  in  sand,  it  is  made  in  loam  and  applied  in 
the  usual  way.  Square  forms  of  objects  which  are 
to  be  moulded  without  patterns,  are  made  in  a  similar 
12 


134   MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

manner  as  those  of  an  oval  or  irregular  form ;  such 
moulds,  however,  require  more  strength  than  the 
moulds  of  round  forms,  for  the  pressure  of  the  fluid 
metal  upon  a  plain  surface,  tends  to  drive  the  core 
and  mould  apart,  with  more  energy  than  it  does  in 
round  forms.  To  guard  against  this  pressure  in  flat 
or  straight  forms,  is  an  object  which  requires  some 
judgment  on  the  part  of  the  moulder. 

If  complicated  forms  are  to  be  moulded,  the  best 
plan  always  is,  first  to  make  a  pattern  in  wood  of  the 
object.  Even  if  the  pattern  is  not  used  in  moulding 
directly,  it  is  of  great  service  to  the  moulder,  m 
having  a  form  to  imitate,  which  is  more  plastic 
to  his  mind  than  a  mere  drawing.  All  heavy 
and  complicated  castings,  such  as  heavy  bed-plates 
for  steam  engines,  housings,  and  rollers  for  iron 
works,  are  moulded  in  loam,  if  good  work  is  ex- 
pected. The  heat  and  pressure  of  a  mass  of  hot 
iron  like  that  poured  into  the  mould  for  the  bed- 
plate for  the  engines  of  the  Collins  Atlantic  steamers, 
being  forty  tons  or  more,  will  destroy  any  sand  mould, 
no  matter  how  carefully  made.  Complicated  forma 
of  this  kind  are  partly  made  to  drawings  and  partly 
over  wood  or  metallic  patterns.  We  will  illustrate 
this  subject  by  an  instance  which  is  not  complicated. 
but  sufficiently  so  to  show  the  principle  upon  which 


MOULDING  135 

a  ti  ould  of  this  kind  is  constructed.  In  figure  29 
a  screw-propeller  is  shown,  such  as  are  now  frequent- 
ly used  to  propel  steamboats.  These  propellers  are 
cast  in  iron,  copper,  brass,  or  bronze ;  this,  however, 
does  not  cause  an  essential-  difference  to  be  made  in 
g  the  mould.  The  four  wings  of  this 


Fig.  29. 


pattern  are  twised  as  shown  in  B.  It  is  advisable 
to  make  a  wood  pattern  of  this  propeller,  dividing 
it  at  the  dotted  line  in  B  into  two  halves.  An 
experienced  moulder  will  prefer  to  make  the  mould 
by  hand,  but  generally  the  pattern  is  buried  in  the 
loam,  and  kept  there  until  the  mould  is  nearly  dry. 
There  is  little  difficulty  in  moulding  this  object  in 
the  latter  way.  As  the  pattern  is  divided,  the  one 
half  is  moulded  upon  an  iron  platform,  the  larger 
spaces  filled  by  brick,  and  over  these  the  usual  coat- 
ing of  loam.  The  four  wings  of  the  pattern  are 
fastened  by  wood-screws  to  the  nave,  which  may  be 


1.n(>  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
drawn  and  the  pattern  removed  in  parts;  this  farina 
the  lower  part  of  the  mould.  The  other  half  of  die 
pattern  is  moulded  in  parts,  upon  quadrant  plates, 
with  its  dividing  side  downwards.  The  mould  of 
this  half  is  taken  apart,  each  quarter  resting  upon 
its  quadrant  platform.  These  four  quarters  are  set 
upon  the  first  half  of  the  mould  which  is  whole, 
and  has  a  solid  platform.  The  edges  of  the  four 
wings  or  paddles  are  generally  sharpened  out,  so 
that  there  is  little  difficulty  in  hitting  the  thickness 
of  the  paddles.  A  better  mould  than  that  described 
may  be  made  by  hand;  it  is  then  divided  into  two 
halves  as  the  above,  but  it  affords  a  better  opportu- 
nity of  having  the  facings  of  the  mould  correct  and 
uniform  in  texture.  Many,  screw-propellers  are 
moulded  by  dividing  the  pattern  at  the  nave,  and 
making  a  cope  over  each  paddle,  which  is  fitted  and 
fastened  to  the  cope  of  the  nave.  The  first  way  of 
moulding  is  preferable  to  the  latter;  it  is  perfectly 
safe,  and  makes  a  more  correct  and  smooth  casting. 
Moulding  of  Bronze  Ornaments. — The  art  of 
casting  bronze  statues  has  been  traced  to  remote 
antiquity,  and,  to  all  appearance,  the  ancients  were 
more  skilful  than  the  moderns  in  this  art.  Bronze 
statues  were  so  plentiful  in  Greece  at  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  that  Pliny  calls  them  the  mob 


MOULDING.  137 

"yf  Alexander.  It  is  recorded  that  the  Romans  found 
3000  bronze  statues  in  Athens,  and  as  many  in 
Rhodes.  The  Temple  of  Solomon  was  adorned 
with  heavy  and  richly  ornamented  bronze  castings. 
The  pillars  of  Jachin  and  Boaz  at  the  portal  were 
of  bronze  ;  the  molten  sea  of  the  priests  to  wash 
in,  was  cast  of  bronze,  and  the  metal  basins  at  the 
entrance  were  of  the  same  metal.  The  world-renown- 
ed Colossus  of  Rhodes  was  a  bronze  statue  of  130 
feet  high ;  it  was  broken  by  an  earthquake  fifty-six 
years  after  its  erection,  and  its  remains  lay  scattered 
over  the  ground  for  nearly  nine  hundred  years,  when 
they  were  sold  by  a  king  to  a  Jew,  who  carried  at 
that  time  360  tons  of  metal  away.  More  recently, 
in  the  middle  ages,  bronze  was  extensively  used  for 
doors  and  gates  of  churches  and  cities.  The  doors 
at  the  Battisterio  in  Florence  were  of  such  ex- 
quisite workmanship,  that  Michael  Angelo,  the 
great  architect  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  declared 
that  these  gates  were  worthy  to  be  the  gates  of 
heaven.  More  recently,  in  our  own  times,  this 
beautiful  art  has  been  degraded  to  the  manufacture 
of  implements  of  war,  and  in  other  cases  to  celebrate 
the  memory  of  military  heroes — an  application  no 
better  than  the  other.  The  ancients  were  not 
acquainted  with  a  definite  alloy,  to  make  their  bronze 
12* 


138    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
castings  of.     Their  mixtures  were  accidental ;  but 
we  will  speak  of  this  hereafter. 

Moulding  of  Statues. — The  mode  of  forming  the 
moulds  for  bronze  castings  of  large  size,  as  statues 
and  bas-reliefs,  was  never  reduced  to  a  systematic 
art.  There  is  satisfactory  evidence  to  show  that  the 
knowledge  of  this  art  lay  dormant  for  centuries. 
The  ancient  Greeks  were  the  most  skilful  in  the  execu- 
tion of  statues  of  this  kind,  not  only  so  far  as  form  is 
concerned,  but  also  in  their  preparation  of  the  moulds 
and  the  casting  of  the  statue.  Their  plan  of  mak- 
ing a  mould,  was  to  make  a  skeleton  of  plastic  clay, 
•which  was  to  form  the  core.  This  skeleton  was  kept 
wet — just  as  the  sculptors  of  the  present  day  mould 
a  figure  in  clay — and  made  into  an  exact  mould 
of  the  figure  to  be  produced.  Over  this  wet 
clay  pattern  the  cope  was  made,  and  so  far  dried  as 
to  admit  of  removal,  after  which  core  and  cope  were 
finally  dried  and  burned.  The  space  resulting  from 
the  shrinking  of  the  core,  formed  here  the  thickness 
for  the  metal.  The  way  in  which  such  a  mould  was 
made  is  an  evidence  of  the  high  skill  of  the  artists 
of  that  time ;  for  in  case  the.  casting  fails,  all  the 
labour  of  the  artist  and  the  moulder  is  lost,  for  pat- 
tern and  mould  are  destroyed  at  each  cast.  It  requires 


MOULDING.  139 

great  experience  and  skill  to  succeed  in  this  mode 
of  casting  statues  and  larger  ornaments. 

French  Mode  of  Moulding  Statues. — A  more  safe, 
but  very  expensive  plan  of  making  moulds,  was 
practised  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteetth  centu- 
ries. The  pattern  for  larger  statues  was  made  of 
plaster  of  paris,  instead  of  clay,  because  the  latter 
shrinks  a  great  deal  in  large  masses.  This  plaster 
was  laid  on  and  fastened  to  a  skeleton  of  iron.  Over 
this  pattern,  which  might  be  either  an  original  or  a 
pattern  at  hand,  a  cast  of  plaster  is  made,  and  this 
plaster  mould  divided  so  as  to  remove  it  conveniently. 
Over  parts  of  this  plaster  mould  coats  of  wax  are 
laid,  which  form  the  "thickness."  The  wax  is  a 
compound  of  six  parts  of  wax  and  one  of  white  pitch, 
with  which  a  little  tallow  or  oil  is  mixed.  The 
plaster  mould  receives  a  film  of  oil  before  th«  wax 
is  put  on,  and  the  first  coating  of  wax  is  laid  on 
warm  by  means  of  a  paint  brush.  A  skeleton  of  ' 
iron  bars  is  now  made,  composed  of  heavy  and  small 
iron,  also  iron  wire  and  wire  gauze,  having,  a?  near  **•- 
as  possible,  the  form  of  the  object  to  be  cast.  The 
segments  of  wax  are  fastened  to  this  iron  skeleton, 
and  finally  the  whole  surrounded  by  the  plaster 
cope.  Into  this  hollow  mould,  which  is  composed  of 
the  cope  of  plaster,  a  thickness  of  wax,  and  an  iron 


140  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE 
skeleton  in  the  interior,  the  cement  forming  the 
core  is  cast.  This  cement  is  composed  of  two  parts 
of  plaster  of  paris,  and  one  of  brick-dust,  or  ground 
bricks,  cast  through  an  opening  made  in  a  convenient 
place  as  high  as  possible  on  the  mould.  When  this 
core  is  hardened,  which  takes  but  a  short  time,  the 
plaster  cope  is  removed,  the  damages  in  the  wax 
mould  repaired,  and  a  number  of  small  gits  for  con- 
ducting the  metal,  and  other  gates  for  letting  out  the 
gases,  are  fastened  around  the  figure.  These  gates 
are  made  of  wax,  from  half  an  inch  to  one  inch  thick, 
and  fastened  to  the  figure  in  such  places  where  the 
least  injury  will  be  done.  None  are  to  be  on  the 
face,  hands,  or  other  delicate  parts.  Small  wire  is 
used  to  keep  these  gates  in  their  places.  The  final 
cope  is  then  made  in  the  usual  way  of  sand-loam, 
mixed  with  cow-hair,  or  horse-dung.  The  first  coat- 
ing on  the  wax  figure,  however,  consists  of  finely 
ground  brick-dust,  mixed  with  the  white  of  egg 
or  glue,  forming  a  kind  of  paint.  This  is  painted 
twenty  times  and  more  over  the  pattern.  After  this 
first  coat  follows  a  coating  of  hair-loam,  and  finally 
horse-dung  loam.  This  loam-cope  is  to  be  provided 
with  iron  fastenings,  and  at  last  receives  a  brick 
enclrsure,  which  is  also  secured  by  iron  binders 
Below  and  around  this  mould  fire-places  aro  erected, 


MOULDING.  141 

which  are  so  distributed  as,  when  fire  is  made  in  them, 
to  make  the  mould  uniformly  warm  outside  and  inside, 
and  heat  it  to  an  almost  red  heat.  The  wax  forming 
the  thickness  is  the  first  that  flows  out,  and  leaves  a 
space  in  the  mould  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  cast 
is  to  be.  The  quantity  of  metal  needed  to  fill  the 
mould  is  exactly  that  space  occupied  by  the  wax. 
This  process  of  moulding  is  complicated,  but  it  is 
safe  and  insures  good  castings.  It  has  the  advantage 
over  the  Grecian  mode,  that  the  original  pattern,  the 
plaster  cope,  is  never  lost. 

By  skill  and  dexterity  the  artist  may  shorten  the 
above  process.  One  way  is  to  build  the  plaster  cope 
directly  over  the  iron  skeleton  for  the  core,  cast  the 
mould  full  of  core-cement,  remove  the  plaster  cope, 
and  shave  the  "thickness"  off  the  core.  Then  put 
the  plaster  cope  again  around  this  core,  and  cast  the 
thickness  space  full  of  wax.  Over  this  wax  cast,  the 
loam  cope  is  made,  as  described  above. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  no  settled  system  in 
the  casting  of  bronze  statues:  the  artists  follow  theit 
own  individual  inclinations  and  experience.  In  many 
instances  cores  are  built  up  first,  covered  by  hand 
with  loam,  and  burned ;  then  the  wax  is  put  on,  and 
the  pattern  made  upon  the  core ;  over  this  pattern 
the  loam  cope  is  moulded,  the  wax  melted  out,  and 


142    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

the  mould  filled  with  metal  in  the  usual  way.  In 
this  way  the  pattern  is  lost.  In  other  cases  they 
make  a  core  as  above,  cover  it  by  wax  plates  made 
in  the  plaster  mould,  and  proceed  as  described  before. 
All  the  difference  from  that  described  in  the  past  pages 
is  here  the  making  of  the  core,  which,  if  made  in 
the  latter  way,  is  more  perfect,  and  more  certain  to 
secure  success. 

Iron  Statues  require  more  metal  than  bronze 
statues,  and  also  strongly  burnt  moulds.  Here 
the  core  is  built  up  first,  and  the  "  thickness"  laid 
on  in  fine  clay.  The  pattern  is  made  by  the  sculp- 
tor upon  the  core.  The  cope  is  made  and  divided 
as  in  common  loam-moulding,  the  thickness  removed, 
and  the  mould  put  together  with  that  caution  re- 
quired to  make  the  operation  successful.  The  pattern 
of  course  is  lost,  and  if  the  casting  fails  it  is  to  be 
made  anew.  A  mould  over  a  pattern  at  hand,  may 
be  made  over  that  pattern,  but  the  core  is  to  be 
made  by  hand.  In  all  cases  core  as  well  as  cope 
are  to  be  well  provided  with  iron  stays,  and  chaplets, 
and  are  to  be  perfectly  dry.  If  such  cautions  are 
taken,  there  will  be  no  failure  in  casting. 

Bas-reliefs. — Flat  bronze  castings,  as  ornamentei 
pannels,  facings,  and  single  ornaments,  are  cast  in 
the  usual  way  in  iron  flasks,  in  new  sand,  and  dried. 


MOULDING.    .  113 

If  the  patterns  are  too  complicated,  or  underworked, 
BO  as  to  make  many  cores  necessary,  the  facing  of 
the  mould  is  made  in  fine  strong  sand,  entirely  com- 
posed of  cores,  and  over  these  cores,  as  a  parting, 
the  whole  of  the  cores  are  covered  with  common  mould- 
ing sand  and  dried  all  together.  The  parting  between 
the  cores  and  the  sand  is  made  by  common  parting- 
sand.  To  avoid  the  division  of  the  mould,  the  pat- 
terns are  frequently  cut  in  such  places  and  directions 
as  to  remove  the  pattern  in  parts.  This  latter  mode 
of  moulding,  because  it  is  the  cheapest,  is  practised 
in  the  manufacture  of  articles  which  are  in  common 
use. 

Moulding  of  Bells. — Small  bells  are  generally 
moulded  in  sand,  from  a  metal  or  wood  pattern,  and 
the  sand  mould  is  dried  in  a  stove,  as  before 
described.  We  shall  give  no  description  of  the 
manufacture  of  small  bells,  to  which  class  bells  of 
from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  pounds'  weight 
belong,  but  confine  ourselves  to  a  description  of  the 
moulding  of  the  larger  kinds.  The  most  important 
part  of  this  art,  is  the  construction  or  the  form  of 
the  bell.  Another  equally  interesting  is  the  com- 
position of  bell-metal.  In  this  place  we  shall  only 
speak  of  the  moulding  of  a  large  bell.  In  figure 
80,  a  mould  is  represented  as  it  is  sunk  in  the  pit 


144    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
for  casting.     There  is  no  essential  difference  between 
moulding  a  bell  and  a  cast-iron  kettle.     The  core  is 
built  in  brick  upon  an  iron  platform,  which  is  to 


have  snugs,  in  case  the  mould  is  made  above  ground 
This  brick  core  is  covered  with  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  or  one  inch  thick  of  hair-loam,  and  the  last  sur- 
face-washing is  given  by  a  finely  ground  composition 
of  clay  and  brick-dust.  This  latter  is  mixed  with  an 
extract  of  horse-dung,  to  which  is  added  a  little  sal- 
ammonia.  Upon  the  core  the  "  thickness"  is  laid 
in  loam-sand,  but  the  thickness  is  again  washed 
with  fine  clay  to  give  it  a  smooth  surface.  Orna- 
ments which  have  been  previously  moulded,  either 
in  wax,  wood,  or  metal,  are  now  pasted  on  by  means 
of  wax,  glue,  or  any  other  kind  of  cement.  If 
the  ornaments  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  prevent  the 
lifting  of  the  cope  without  them — for  the  cope 
cannot  be  divided — the  ornaments  are  fastened  to 


M»ULDIN3.  145 

thf  thickness  by  tallow,  or  a  mixture  of  tallow  and 
wax.  A.  little  heat  given  to  the  mould  will  melt  the 
tallow,  after  which  the  ornaments  adhere  to  the  cope, 
from  which  they  may  be  removed  when  the  cope  is 
lifted  off  the  core.  The  thickness  is  to  be  well 
polished  ;  and,  as  no  coal  can  be  used  for  parting,  the 
whole  is  slightly  dusted  over  with  wood-ashes.  The 
parting  between  the  core  and  the  thickness  is  also 
made  with  ashes.  The  cope  is  laid  on  at  first  by 
means  of  a  paint-brush,  the  paint  consisting  of  clay 
and  ground  bricks,  made  thin  by  horse-dung  water. 
This  coating  is  to  be  thin  and  fine;  upon  it  hair- 
loam,  and  finally  straw-loam  is  laid. 

The  crown  of  the  bell  is  moulded  over  a  wood 
pattern,  after  the  spindle  is  removed.  The  iron  or 
steel  staple  for  the  hammer  is  set  in  the  core,  into 
the  hollow  left  by  the  spindle.  It  projects  into 
the  thickness,  so  as  to  be  cast  into  the  metal.  The 
facing  of  the  mould  ought  to  be  finished  when  the 
cope  is  lifted  off.  Small  defects  may  occur,  and 
are,  if  not  very  large,  left  as  they  are;  the  excess 
of  metal  in  those  places  is  chiselled  off  after  the  bell 
is  cast.  All  that  can  be  done  in  polishing  the  facing 
of  the  mould  is  to  give  it  a  uniform  dusting  of  ashes. 
When  the  mould  is  perfectly  dry,  it  is  put  together 
for  casting.  The  core  may  be  filled  with  sand,  if 
13 


146  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE 
preferred,  but  there  is  no  harm  clone  if  it  is  left  open  : 
for  bell-metal  does  not  generate  much  gas,  and 
there  is  no  danger  of  an  explosion.  The  cope  is  in 
some  measure  secured  by  iron,  but  its  chief  security 
is  in  the  strong,  well  rammed  sand  of  the  pit.  The 
cast-gate  is  on  the  top  of  the  bell,  either  on  tne 
crown,  or,  if  the  latter  is  ornamented,  on  one  side 
of  it.  Flow-gates  are  of  no  use  here,  the  metal  is 
to  be  clean  before  it  enters  the  mould :  there  is 
no  danger  of  sullage. 

Moulds  consisting  partly  of  loam  or  sand,  and 
partly  of  metal,  are  in  frequent  use  in  iron  foundries. 
Small  car-wheels,  boshes  for  cart-wheels,  and  car- 
wheels  for  mining  establishments,  receive  their  bore 
by  being  cast  over  an  iron  or  steel  core.  Such  a 
core-iron  is  a  little  tapered,  to  admit  of  its  being  freed 
from  the  casting  by  a  smart  stroke  of  the  hammer. 
The  casting  is  never  left  to  cool  entirely  before  the 
core  is  removed.  It  is  generally  removed  when  the 
casting  is  hot,  but  so  far  cooled  as  to  resist  the  draw- 
ing out  of  the  core-iron. 

Chilled  railroad-car  wheels  are  another  article 
where  iron  is  employed  as  a  part  of  the  mould.  The 
cast  and  chilled  railroad  wheels  now  in  general  use, 
are  cast  in  a  mould  composed  of  green  sand  and 
iron.  In  figure  31  is  shown  a  mould  in  which  a  chilled 


MOULDING.  147 

wheel  is  cast.  It  consists  of  three  boxes.  The 
lower  is  i  box  of  common  round  form,  merely  to 
hold  the  sand  and  give  support  to  the  centre  core 

Fig.  81. 


and  the  middle  box.  The  upper  box  is  of  a  similar 
form,  also  round.  The  middle  box  is  a  solid  ring 
cast  of  strong  gray  or  mottled  iron,  and  bored 
out  upon  a  turning  lathe,  giving  it  the  reverse 
of  the  exact  form  of  the  rim  of  the  wheel.  This 
middle  box  ought  to  be  at  least  as  heavy  as  the 
wheel  is  to  be  after  casting,  and  it  is  preferable  if 
it  has  two  or  three  times  that  weight.  All  the  three 
boxes  are  joined  by  ears  and  pins  as  usual,  and  the 
latter  ought  to  fit  well  without  being  too  tight.  The 
chief  difficulty  in  casting  these  chilled  wheels  is  to 
make  the  cast  of  a  uniform  strain  to  prevent  the 
wheels  from  breaking.  Wheels  with  spokes  or  arms 
are  very  liable  to  this  evil,  and  are  to  be  cast  with 
their  hubs  divided  into  three  or  more  segments,  which 
are  afterwards  b;iided  by  wrought-iron  tires  before 
fastening  them  to  the  car  axles.  At  present,  most 


148    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDL-VS  POCKET  GUIDE. 

of  these  wheels  are  cast  with  corrugated  discu  or 
plates;  in  this  way  the  hub  may  be  cast  solid,  and 
the  wheel  is  not  so  liable  to  be  subjected  to  an  un- 
equal strain  in  the  metal  as  when  cast  with  spokes. 
In  such  plate-wheels  the  whole  space  between  the 
rim  and  the  hub  is  filled  by  metal,  which,  however, 
in  most  cases  is  not  more  than  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  or  one  inch  thick.  The  rim  of  a  good  wheel 
is  to  be  as  hard  as  hardened  steel  at  its  periphery, 
but  soft  and  gray  in  its  central  parts.  The  first 
requisite  is  more  safely  attained  by  having  a  heavy 
chill;  but  if  the  chill  is  too  heavy,  the  inner  parts 
are  apt  to  suffer  the  cooling  qualities  of  the  chill. 
Success  in  this  branch  of  founding  depends  very 
much  on  the  quality  of  the  iron  of  which  the  wheels 
are  cast ;  but  of  this  we  shall  speak  again  in  another 
place.  Soon  after  casting  such  wheels  it  is  advi- 
sable to  open  the  mould,  and  remove  the  sand  from 
the  central  parts,  so  as  to  make  it  cool  faster;  this 
precaution  saves  many  castings,  not  only  in  this 
particular  case,  but  in  many  other  instances.  Uni- 
formity in  cooling  is  as  necessary  to  success  as  good 
moulding.  The  thinnest  parts  of  castings  which  cool 
Grst,  will  invariably  break  ;  but  if  a  casting  cools 
iniformly,  there  is  no  danger  of  strain  in  the  metal. 
Chilled  Rollers. — One  of  the  most  important  cases 


MOULDING.  149 

of  this  kind  of  moulding  and  casting  in  iron  moulds, 
l»  the  casting  of  chilled  rollers.  There  are  some 
good  chilled  rollers  manifactured  in  the  Western 
foundries,  particularly  at  Pittsburgh.  We  will  not 
allude  to  any  particular  case,  but  describe  the  pro- 
cess of  making  chilled  rollers,  generally.  The  mculd 
for  a  chilled  roller  consists  of  three  parts,  as  shown 
in  figure  32.  The  lower  box  of  iron  or  wood  is 


Fig.  32. 


filled  with  ''new  sand"  or  a  cement,  a  strong  com 
position  of  clay  and  sand,  in  which  a  wood  pattern 
is  moulded  which  forms  the  coupling  and  the  neck 
of  the  roller.  The  middle  part  of  the  mould  is  the 
chill,  a  heavy  iron  cylinder  well  bored.  The  upper 
part  of  the  mould  consists  again  of  a  box,  but  is 
higher  than  tho  lower  box,  so  as  to  make  room  for 
the  head  in  w Vr  a  the  impurities  of  the  iron, "  sullage," 
13* 


150    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

are  to  be  gathered.  The  two  boxes  with  their  con 
tents  of  sand  are  to  be  well  dried.  In  many  estab- 
lishments the  two  ends  of  the  roller  are  moulded  in 
loam,  over  the  chill,  to  secure  concentricity  of  roller 
and  coupling ;  but  this  can  be  quite  as  safely  arrived 
at  by  fitting  the  ears  and  pins  of  the  boxes  well  to 
the  chill.  The  chill  is  the  important  part  in  this 
mould :  it  ought  to  be  at  least  three  times  as  heavy 
as  the  roller  which  is  to  be  cast  in  it,  and  provided  with 
wrought-iron  hoops  to  prevent  its  falling  to  pieces, 
for  it  will  invariably  crack  if  not  made  of  very  strong 
cast  iron.  The  iron  of  which  a  chill  is  cast  is  to  be 
strong,  fine-grained,  and  not  too  gray.  Gray  iron 
is  too  bad  a  conductor  of  heat :  it  is  liable  to  melt 
with  the  cast.  Iron  that  makes  a  good  roller  will 
make  a  good  chill.  The  facing  of  the  mould  is 
blackened  like  any  other  mould,  but  the  blacken- 
ing is  to  be  stronger  than  in  other  cases,  to  resist 
more  the  abrasive  motion  of  the  fluid  metal.  The 
chill  is  blackened  with  a  thin  coating  of  very  fine 
black-lead,  mixed  with  the  purest  kind  of  clay ; 
this  coating  is  to  be  very  thin,  or  it  will  scale  off 
before  it  is  of  service.  The  most  important  point  in 
making  chilled  rollers  is  the  mode  of  casting  them, 
and  the  quality  of  iron  used.  Of  the  latter  we  shall 
*speak  in  another  place.  To  cast  a  roller,  whether  a 


MOULDING.  151 

«hilled  roller  or  any  other,  from  above,  would  cause 
a  failure,  for  the  roller  will  be  useless.  All  rollers 
are  to  be  cast  from  below.  It  is  not  sufficient  to 
conduct  the  iron  in  below;  there  is  a  particular 
way  in  which  the  best  roller  may  be  cast,  for 
almost  every  kind  of  iron.  The  general  mode  is 
represented  in  figure  33,  which  shows  the  upper 

Fig.  33. 


side  of  the  lower  box.  In  A  is  represented 
the  cast-gate  and  channel,  as  it  is  seen  from  above. 
The  gate  is  conducted  to  the  lower  journal  of 
the  roller,  and  its  channel  continues  to  a  certain 
distance  around  it ;  it  touches  the  mould  in  a  tan- 
gential direction.  In  casting  fluid  metal  in  this  gate 
the  metal  will  assume  a  rotary  motion  around  the 
axis  of  the  roller,  or,  which  is  the  same,  the  axis  of 
the  mould.  This  motion  will  carry  all  the  heavy 
and  pure  iron  towards  the  periphery  or  the  face  of 
the  mould,  and  the  sullage  will  concentrate  in  the 
centre.  It  is  a  bad  plan  to  lead  the  current  of  hot 
iron  upon  the  chill,  for  it  would  burn  a  hole  into  it, 


152    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

and  melt  chill  and  roller  in  that  place  together. 
The  gate  must  be  in  the  lower  box,  in  the  sand  or  the 
loam-mould.  The  quality  of  the  melted  iron  modifies 
in  some  measure  the  form  of  the  gate,  for  stiff  or  cold 
iron  requires  a  rapid  circular  motion,  while  fluid, 
thin  iron  is  to  have  less  motion,  or  it  is  liable  to 
melt  to  the  chill.  The  roller  is  kept  in  the  mould 
until  perfectly  cool,  but  the  cooling  may  be  accele- 
rated by  digging  up  the  sand  around  the  chill. 

Casting  Iron  to  Steel — One  branch  of  moulding 
and  casting  we  have  to  mention  before  we  leave  this 
subject :  it  is  the  casting  together  of  iron  and  steel. 
At  present  many  anvils,  vices,  and  other  articles  are 
made  of  cast  iron,  mounted  with  steel,  which  are  in 
a  fair  way  of  driving  all  the  wrought-iron  articles 
of  this  kind  out  of  the  market.  The  welding  together 
of  steel  and  cast  iron  is  not  difficult,  if  the  steel  is 
not  too  refractory.  This  process  will  not  succeed 
at  all  with  German  or  shear  steel,  and  hardly  so 
with  blistered  steel,  but  it  is  easily  performed  with 
cast  steel,  by  soldering  it  to  cast  iron  by  means  of 
cast-iron  filings  and  borax  Of  the  manufacture 
of  these  cast-iron  articles  with  steel  faces  we  can 
give  but  the  outlines,  having  had  no  opportunity  of 
becoming  thoroughly  acquainted  with  this  branch. 
The  cast-steel  plates  t-)  be  welded  to  the  faces 


MOULDING.  153 

of  anvils,  are  generally  from  a  half  to  five-eighths 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  as  wide  as  the  face  itself. 
These  are  ground  or  filed  white  on  one  side,  and 
then  covered  on  that  side  with  a  coating  of  calcined 
borax.  The  plate,  with  the  borax  on  it,  is  heated 
gently  until  the  borax  melts,  which  covers  it  with  a 
fusible  transparent  glaze.  The  plate  in  this  condi- 
tion is  laid  quite  hot  in  the  mould,  which  latter  is 
made  of  dry  and  strong  sand.  The  iron  is  poured 
in  and  rises  from  below ;  the  steel  plate  being  the 
lowest  part  of  the  mould,  it  will  have  the  hottest 
iron.  The  heat  to  be  given  to  the  iron  will  depend 
in  some  measure  on  the  quality  of  the  steel;  shear 
steel  requires  hotter  iron  than  cast  steel.  The  cast 
iron  used  for  these  purposes,  is  to  be  strong  and 
gray,  but  not  too  gray,  or  the  union  of  the  iron  and 
steel  is  not  strong.  White  cast  iron  will  not  answer 
in  this  case,  partly  because  the  casting  would  be  too 
weak,  but  chiefly  because  the  cast  iron  would  fly  or 
crack,  in  hardening  the  steel.  The  hardening  is 
done  under  a  considerable  heat,  with  an  access  of 
water  falling  from  an  elevation  of  ten  feet  or  more. 
Moulds  for  Lead,  Tin,  $c.  $c. — Besides  these 
moulds  of  sand,  loam,  and  partly  iron,  there  are 
moulds  which  are  entirely  constructed  of  .aetal, 
either  of  iron,  copper,  brass,  or  bronze.  Such 


154  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
moulds  are  used  for  casting  tin,  lead,  pewter,  Bri- 
tannia metal,  zinc,  types,  and  other  articles  of  economy 
and  ornament.  Brass  or  bronze  moulds  are  gene- 
rally preferred  to  iron  moulds,  because  they  do  not 
corrode  as  iron  moulds  do,  and  retain  a  more  perfect 
polish.  Such  moulds  are  constructed  on  the  same 
principle  as  sand  or  loam-moulds.  If  a  metal  mould 
is  divided  into  two,  three,  or  more  parts,  each  part 
is  provided  with  a  handle  sufficiently  long  to  protect 
the  hands  against  the  heat  of  the  mould.  The  parts 
of  such  a  mould  must  be  nicely  fitted  together,  and 
kept  in  their  position  by  ears  and  pins,  or  in  many 
instances  by  wedges.  The  mould  is  gently  heated 
before  any  metal  is  poured  into  it,  to  secure  the  fill- 
ing of  the  space  in  the  mould,  for  many  of  the  most 
fusible  metals  and  alloys  cannot  lose  much  heat 
from  melting  to  congealing.  The  moulds  must  be 
well  polished  after  each  cast,  and  are  then  rubbed 
over'  with  a  rag  containing  oil  or  tallow,  and  which 
spreads  a  thin  film  of  oil  or  tallow  over  the  facing  of 
the  mould.  In  many  cases  a  covering  or  film  of 
pounce-powder — sandarach  —  beaten  up  with  the 
white  of  an  egg,  is  preferred,  particularly  for  alloys. 
Single  metals  work  better  with  oil  or  fat. 

Moulds  for  Copper  and  Brass,  if  it  is  intended  to 


MOULDING.  155 

make  sheets  of  these  metals,  are  for  the  first  metal 
simply  cast-iron  boxes,  in  which  the  iron  is  from  one 
and  a  half  to  two  inches  thick.  These  boxes  are  form- 
ed so  as  to  be  taken  apart,  for  the  copper  will  adhere 
to  the  iron  if  it  is  very  hot.  These  iron  moulds  are 
to  be  very  clean,  or  the  cast  of  copper,  which  is  from 
two  to  three  inches  thick,  is  apt  to  have  holes,  which 
makes  it  useless  for  sheets.  Brass  may  be  cast  in 
the  same  way  as  copper,  but  it  is  more  safe  to  cast 
brass  plates  for  sheets  between  two  stone-plates. 
These  stones  may  be  of  granite,  freestone,  or  any  other 
kind  of  hard  fine-grained  quartz  stone.  They  are 
to  be  from  six  to  twelve  inches  thick,  and  secured 
against  falling  to  pieces,  in  case  they  crack,  by  iron 
hoops.  The  space  between  the  stones  for  making 
the  thickness,  is  formed  by  iron  rods.  Suvh  a  mould 
is  to  be  in  the  sweep  of  a  strong  crane,  and  is  in 
the  whole  a  somewhat  complicated  operation,  foreign 
to  our  subject. 

Stereotyping. — Plaster  of  Paris  moulds  are  used 
for  many  articles  cast  of  fusible  metal,  but  particu- 
larly for  stereotyping  plates  used  in  printing  books. 
Fine  plaster  of  paris  is  first  cast  over  a  page  of 
letter  composition,  and  this  thin  coating  strengthened 
by  coarse  plaster.  This  plaster  mould  is  dried  at  a 
boiling  heat  in  appropriate  stoves,  and  then  dipped 


156  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
in  a  kettle  filled  with  melted  type  metal.  When 
the  mould  is  cooled  the  plaster  is  broken  off,  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  skill  of  the  operator,  a  more  or  leas 
true  copy  of  the  letters  which  served  as  a  pattern 
is  obtained. 

There  was  a  kind  of  stereotype  process  for- 
merly practised,  which  deserves,  on  account  of 
the  principles  involved,  not  to  be  forgotten.  Before 
the  invention  of  the  present  mode  of  casting  stereo- 
types under  the  influence  of  pressure  in  a  metallic 
bath,  they  were  made  simply  by  pressing  the  pat- 
tern,— which  might  be  a  wood  cut,  or  a  composed 
form, — upon  the  liquid  metal,  just  when  at  the  point 
of  congelation.  It  was  a  process  which  required 
skill  and  dexterity,  but  made  better  casts  than  the 
present  mode  of  stereotyping.  The  fine  stereotyped 
prints  made  at  the  end  of  the  last  and  the  first 
part  of  this  century  were  stereotyped  in  this  way. 
The  beautiful  stereotypes  of  Firmin  Didot  in  Paris 
were  done  in  this  manner.  The  metal  used  for  mak- 
ing the  mould  was  lead  with  a  little  tin ;  this  was  melted 
and  cast  in  a  paper-box  as  large  as  the  cast  was  to 
be.  The  fluid  metal  was  but  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
thick  and  resting  upon  a  level  table,  cooled  very  uni- 
formly. The  moment  when  the  metal  was  going  to 
crystallize  (assume  its  solid  form)  was  the  time  to 


MOULDING.  157 

put  the  wood  engraving  or  form  of  types  down  upon 
:t,  with  a  certain  force.  This  process,  performed 
with  skill,  made  better  and  more  correct  impressions 
than  the  present  plaster  of  paris  mould.  This  first 
or  lead  impression  served  as  a  mould  for  the  next 
cast.  The  next  cast  was  made  of  type  metal,  or  an 
alloy  still  more  fusible.  This  metal  was  cast  like  the 
first,  in  a  low  paper  box,  and  the  moment  when  it  was 
going  to  congeal,  the  lead,  mould  was  with  force  put 
down  upon  it.  This  latter  cast  was  the  true  copy  of 
the  pattern.  The  paper  boxes  were  surrounded 
by  a  screen  of  sheet  iron,  to  protect  the  operator 
against  the  flying  hot  metal.  The  thin  film  of  oxide, 
covering  the  melted  metal,  was  the  means  of  prevent- 
ing the  adherence  of  one  metal  to  the  other.  Machines 
have  been  in  operation  to  perfect  this  process,  and 
make  it  less  dependent  upon  the  operator ;  still,  the 
present  mode  of  casting  stereotypes  has  prevailed 
over  the  old  method,  as  it  is  supposed  to  be  more 
advantageous.  If  there  is  no  advantage  in  stereo- 
typing letter-press  in  the  old  way,  it  is  certain  that 
engravings  are  made  more  perfect  in  that  manner. 
The  composition  of  the  metal  for  this  art,  may  be 
varied  from  the  melting  point  of  lead  to  the  melting 
of  an  alloy  which  requires  but  the  boiling  her.t  of 
water. 


158    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

Impressions  and  Castings. — Before  we  proceed  to 
the  consideration  of  metals,  we  will  speak  of  som» 
interesting  operations  connected  with  the  fine  arts. 
We  allude  here  only  to  relief  impressions,  not  to 
those  in  ink  or  colours.  The  materials  in  which 
impressions  may  be  made,  are  wax,  paper,  whalebone, 
horn,  glass,  sulphur,  and  many  other  materials  to  be 
mentioned  in  the  course  of  this  chapter.  Impres- 
sions are  made  in  many  materials,  and  a  variety  of 
operatio»s  in  the  useful  arts  depend  upon  this  -mani- 
pulation. The  operations  in  the  mint,  and  stamping 
of  medals  and  utensils,  as  spoons,  forks,  and  pans, 
are  parts  of  this  branch  of  art ;  reliefs  in  copper, 
brass,  and  silver  sheets,  the  pressing  of  wooden  snuff 
or  other  boxes,  of  handles  for  canes  and  umbrellas, 
of  leather,  cloth,  and  paper,  all  belong  to  a  different 
branch  from  that  we  are  investigating.  Most  of 
this  work  is  performed  by  stamping-machines  and 
dies,  where  the  relief  part  of  the  die  is  station- 
ary, and  the  counterpart  or  intaglio  moveable. 
Some  of  these  operations  are  closely  connected  with 
our  art,  and  for  these  reasons  we  will  describe 
a  few  of  them.  Impressions  of  small  objects  are 
easily  taken :  the  difficulty  in  making  large  im 
pressions  increases  rapidly  with  the  size  of  the 
impression.  The  use  of  impressions  in  this  case,  is 


MOULDING.  159 

co  obtain  moulds  from  patterns  which  will  not  bear 
a  cast  or  mould,  as  coins,  gems,  &c. 

Wax  is  one  of  the  best  materials  to  take  impres- 
sions with  ;  yellow  wax  is  particularly  qualified  for 
this  purpose.  Before  using  it,  it  is  to  be  gently 
warmed  and  worked  between  the  fingers,  after  which 
it  is  more  uniform  in  composition,  less  adherent  to 
other  matter,  and  stronger  in  itself.  The  only  objec- 
tion to  it  is,  that  it  is  not  very  durable,  and  is  to  be 
kept  with  caution  to  save  the  sharp  impressions  of  the 
original.  Such  impressions  in  wax  are  made  where  the 
original  pattern  will  not  bear  heat  or  water.  Their  use 
is  to  make  plaster  coats  over  them,  and  prepare  the 
plaster  cast  for  patterns  to  be  moulded  in  sand. 

Bread  in  crumbs,  is  another  material  for  taking 
impressions.  If  this  is  well  worked  between  the 
fingers  before  the  impression  is  taken,  it  can  be  dried 
without  cracking,,  and  casts  of  sulphur,  plaster,  or 
other  matter  may  be  made  in  it  with  success. 

Impressions  in  sealing-wax  can  only  be  made  in 
cases  where  the  pattern  is  not  liable  to  injury  from  the 
heat  of  melted  sealing-wax.  In  this  operation  seal- 
ing-^ax  of  the  best  quality  is  required  ;  it  is  to  be 
molted  in  a  thin  layer  in  a  metallic  capsule  over  the 
flame  of  a  lamp,  and  the  pattern,  as  lapidary  or 
Reals,  is  impressed  upon  it  when  near  the  point  of 


160    MOULDER'S  AND  POUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDF. 

congelation.  Impressions  in  sealing-wax  are  very 
useful  for  taking  casts  in  clay  or  plaster,  and 
if  enclosed  in  a  metal  capsule  they  may  be  moulded 
in  sand.  The  melted  wax  must  be  free  of  blisters, 
and  the  pattern  which  gives  the  impression  very 
clean. 

Sulphur,  is  a  material  very  useful  in  taking  im- 
pressions, but  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  succeed  with 
it.  There  are  two  ways  in  which  it  can  be  done  :  we 
will  mention  both.  If  sulphur  is  melted  to  nearly  its 
boiling  point,  it  assumes  a  pasty  appearance.  If  in 
this  condition  it  is  quickly  cast  into  a  large  vessel  of 
cold  water,  it  will  retain  that  pasty  form.  The 
detached  parts  may  be  united  under  water,  without 
injury  to  the  condition  of  the  sulphur.  This  putty 
sulphur  will  take  fine  impressions,  and  regain  in  a 
few  days  its  natural  hardness.  A  less  difficult  opera- 
tion is  the  following.  In  melting  sulphur  it  first 
assumes  a  watery  appearance,  is  clear  and  liquid, 
but  by  increased  heat  becomes  brown  and  tough,  and 
at  last  it  burns  with  a  blue  flame.  In  this  state  it 
is  cast  upon  a  plate,  where,  in  gradually  cooling,  it 
becomes  liquid,  and  after  this  congeals  all  at  once. 
When  the  sulphur  is  just  beginning  to  harden,  the 
pattern  is  pressed  firmly  upon  it,  and  a  good  sharp 
•mpression  is  thus  obtained. 


MOULDING.  161 

Grlass  impressions  are  very  durable,  but  are  not 
so  easily  made.  To  copy  a  coin,  cameo,  or  medal  in 
glass,  an  iron  welded  ring  about  a  half  or  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  high,  a  little  larger  than  the  pattern,  is 
laid  around  it.  In  this  iron  ring  upon  the  pattern, 
damp  tripoli  of  Corfu, — other  kinds  of  rotten  stone 
cannot  be  recommended,  because  the  chemical  com- 
position of  this  tripoli  is  the  chief  condition  of  suc- 
cess— is  rammed  on  just  .as  in  sand  moulding. 
The  facing  is  to  be  the  finest  part  of  the  tripoli,  and 
worked  through  a  fine  silk  sieve.  When  the  pattern 
is  removed,  this  mould  is  at  first  gently  dried  and 
gradually  exposed  to  a  stronger  heat,  to  expel  every 
particle  of  moisture.  Upon  the  face  of  this  mould 
a  round  piece  of  fusible  glass  is  laid  a  little  larger 
than  the  pattern,  and  the  whole  exposed  to  the  heat 
of  a  cupola  or  muffle,  such  as  assayers  use  for 
refining  and  assaying.  The  glass  will  soften  by 
degrees  and  fill  the  mould,  the  refractory  character 
of  the  silicious  tripoli  preventing  it  from  melt- 
ing together  with  it.  Coloured  impressions  may 
be  made  simply  by  melting  the  coloured  glass  first 
down  into  those  parts  which  are  to  be  coloured,  and 
then  covering  the  whole  with  such  glass  as  we  intend 
the  body  of  the  impression  to  consist  of.  This  latter 
process,  however,  requires  two  moulds,  and  two  openi- 
14* 


162  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKEV  GUIDE. 
tions ;  the  first  mould  makes  but  one  colour  of  glasa, 
which  is  to  be  ground  on  its  reverse,  before  the  second 
or  body  plate  can  be  melted  to  it.  The  glass  used 
in  this  art  is  that  of  which  pastes  or  artificial  gema 
and  precious  stones  are  made. 

Clay  is  an  excellent  material  for  taking  impres- 
sions, but  its  shrinking,  and  consequent  crack- 
ing, make  it  less  useful  as  a  material  for  taking 
impressions.  It  is  most  extensively  employed  as 
a  means  of  raising  ornaments  upon  porcelain.  If 
coloured  ornaments  are  wanted,  the  white  clay  is 
coloured  by  a  fire-proof  colour,  pressed  into  a  bronze 
mould,  made  flush  with  the  mould  by  a  bone  spatula. 
The  ground  mass  is  laid  over  it,  to  which  it  will  ad- 
here. The  contraction  incident  to  clay  impres- 
sions may  be  brought  to  useful  account.  By 
repeated  moulding  and  drying  a  diminution  of  the 
original  pattern  may  be  obtained,  true  in  all  particu- 
lars, but  somewhat  less  sharp. 

Artificial-wood  impressions  may  be  made  by  mix- 
ing saw-dust  with  a  solution  of  glue  5  parts  and 
isinglass  1  part.  The  moulds  for  this  mass  may 
be  made  of  metal,  wood,  sulphur,  or  even  plaster  of 
paris,  covered  with  a  film  of  oil.  The  mass  is 
pressed  into  the  mould  by  hand.  Impressions  of  this 
kind  are  never  sharp,  but  answer  for  many  purposes 


MOULDING.  163 

instead  of  wood-carvings.  They  may  be  varnished 
and  gilded  like  wood,  but  cannot  be  used  in  damp 
places.  Saw-dust  of  willow,  maple,  gum,  and  similar 
kinds  of  wood,  is  preferable  to  that  of  hard  wood, 
as  mahogany,  or  pine  wood.  An  addition  of  finely 
powdered  chalk,  rotten-stone,  or  fine  sand,  improves 
the  sharpness  of  the  impression.  Clay  does  not 
answer  in  this  composition,  on  account  of  its  affinity 
for  water. 

Castings  of  other  materials  than  metals  are 
not  extensively  in  use,  but  are  of  importance  as 
means  of  making  patterns. 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  the  most  important  in  this 
range  of  materials.  It  is  made  by  calcining  pounded 
or  ground  gypsum  gently  in  an  oven  :  a  common 
bake-oven  is  sufficient  for  a  small  quantity,  for  there 
is  no  other  ingredient  in  the  composition  of  the 
gypsum  to  be  driven  off  but  the  water  of  crystalliza- 
tion. Too  much  heat  deadens  the  plaster,  and  too 
little  heat  makes  it  work  slow  and  absorb  less  water 
of  crystallization.  Plaster  of  paris  exposed  to  atmo- 
spheric ?,ir  loses  its  quality  of  hardening  with  water  ; 
gentle  heat  in  an  iron  kettle  and  stirring,  restores 
the  lost  capacity  for  water.  To  work  successfully 
in  plaster,  experience  and  skill  are  required,  but.  we 


164    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
will  try  to  give  as  good  practical  information  as  is  in 
our  power. 

One  of  the  first  requisites  to  success  in  this 
work  is  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  nature 
of  the  plaster.  If  the  material  is  a  strange  one,  it  is 
advisable  to  calcine  it  in  an  iron  kettle  under  repeated 
stirring  to  a  red  heat,  or  so  far  as  the  kettle  will 
admit  of,  before  running  the  risk  of  a  cast.  The 
quantity  of  water  with  which  any  kind  of  plas- 
ter will  assume  its  greatest  hardness,  is  to  be  tried 
by  experiments.  Some  qualities  absorb  more  water 
than  others.  The  hardest  casts  are  made  with  the 
least  water,  but  it  requires  dexterity  to  make  sharp 
castings  of  a  stiff  pasty  plaster.  The  casts  are  also 
harder  if  warm  water  is  used.  To  prevent  large 
pores,  and  blisters  in  the  cast,  the  solution  is 
to  be  constantly  stirred,  and  kept  in  motion  until 
the  plaster  is  hardened  in  the  mould.  The  best 
plaster  casts  are  made  if  a  very  thin  solution  is  first 
spread  over  the  face  of  the  mould,  and  upon  this, 
while  wet  yet,  a  stronger  cast  is  made.  This  will  unite 
strength  and  beauty  in  the  same  cast.  Foreign 
matter  ought  not  to  be  mixed  with  plaster  :  it  invari- 
ably impairs  the  strength  of  the  cast.  If  plaster 
is  to  be  used  for  making  patterns,  one-third  of  slack- 
ed lime  may  be  mixed  with  it.  This  keeps  the  plas- 


MOULDING.  165 

ter  for  a  long  time  in  a  pasty  condition,  and  offers 
an  opportunity  to  alter  the  form  of  it  so  long  as  it 
is  in  that  state.  A  little  lime  mixed  with  pure 
plaster,  makes  it  more  useful  for  moulds,  particu- 
larly where  metals  are  to  be  cast  in  it.  The  best 
mixture  for  making  moulds  of  plaster  for  metal,  is 
to  mix  it  with  one-third  of  finely  ground  pumice-stone, 
and  a  little  clay.  All  other  admixtures  to  improve 
the  hardness  or  strength  of  plaster  are  useless.  The 
strongest  casts  are  casts  of  fresh,  well  burnt  plaster, 
which  was  not  too  thin  when  cast.  A  mould  of  plaster 
may  be  made  over  any  pattern  which  is  impervious 
to  water ;  therefore  all  patterns  which  absorb  water 
are  to  be  covered  by  a  varnish  which  excludes  water. 
In  varnishing  a  pattern  the  varnish  is  to  be  laid  on 
thin,  and  uniform,  not  to  mutilate  the  pattern,  or  fill 
up  fine  cavities.  As  an  illustration  of  this  subject, 
we  will  give  a  description  of  some  practical  cases. 
To  cast  a  mould  of  a  coin,  or  of  a  wood  engraving, 
the  pattern  is  first  brushed  over  with  oil  or  soap- 
water,  and  then  laid  on  a  level  place  upon  a  board  or 
table.  It  is  now  surrounded  with  an  enclosure  of  var- 
nished pasteboard,  tin-plate,  or  anything  light  and 
flexible,  which  is  to  be  fastened  tightly  around  the 
pattern.  This  is  to  project  above  the  face  of  the  pat- 
tern the  proposed  thickness  of  the  plustc-i  cast — if 


166  MOULDER'?  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
it  is  higher  there  is  no  harm  done.  Plaster  of  parig 
is  now  mixed  with  an  excess  of  water,  in  a  common 
water  pitcher,  well  stirred,  and  after  remaining  a 
moment  at  rest,  the  coarse  plaster  will  settle  at  the 
bottom,  and  the  finer  portion  be  suspended  in  the 
water.  The  lighter  part  of  this  liquid  is  gently  cast 
over  the  pattern,  while  the  latter  is  constantly  and 
gently  struck,  so  as  to  settle  the  particles  of  plaster 
in  the  finest  crevices  of  the  pattern,  and  make  air 
bubbles  rise,  which  often  pertinaciously  adhere  to 
the  pattern.  The  coarse  sediment  of  the  plaster  is 
thrown  away,  or  saved  and  exposed  to  another  fire 
before  being  used  again.  After  five  or  ten  minutes' 
standing,  the  fine  plaster  is  settled  in  the  mould, 
and  clear  water  stands  over  it.  This  water  is  cast 
off  as  dry  as  possible,  and  some  fresh  plaster,  mixed 
very  stiff,  is  cast  over  the  first  thin  facing  to  strength- 
en it.  The  first  cast  is  made  very  thin  merely  to 
cover  the  pattern,  for  it  will  be  too  weak  and  porous 
for  any  practical  purpose,  even  if  cast  thicker.  The 
two  casts  will  unite  firmly,  and  form  a  useful  whole, 
giving  a  very  minute  impression  and  being  strong 
besides.  Such  a  plaster  mould  is  dried,  to  expel 
8;11  the  water  from  it,  and  may  then  be  used  to 
cast  fusible  metal,  wax,  jr  sulphur  in.  If  this  moult4 
in  to  be  used  for  making  plaster  casts,  it  is  varnished 


MOULDING.  167 

firat,  which  is  done  by  a  gum-shellac  varnish,  or 
by  soaking  the  mould  in  wax.  The  first  is  the  pre- 
ferable plan.  The  first  coating  or  facing  of  plaster 
may  be  put  on  by  a  fine  camel's-hair  brush,  but  thia 
way  is  not  so  sure  of  making  perfect  impressions  as 
that  described.  There  is  a  certain  time  for  re- 
moving the  cast  from  the  pattern ;  if  this  is 
done  too  soon  the  cast  is  too  soft,  and  will  break, 
and  if  done  too  late  it  will  adhere  to  the  pattern. 
For  small  objects,  and  strong  plaster,  from  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes  is  sufficient ;  for  larger  ones,  from 
fifteen  minutes  to  one  hour  will  be  required,  before 
the  cast  can  be  separated  from  the  pattern.  The 
patterns  are  to  be  covered  by  a  film  of  oil,  as  remark- 
ed before;  this  subject  requires  more  attention  than 
at  first  sight  appears  necessary.  Pure  oil  is  liable 
to  fill  the  finer  parts  of  the  pattern  and  prevent 
the  access  of  the  plaster;  it  has,  besides,  the  evil 
influence  upon  the  cast  that  it  prevents  the  harden- 
ing of  it,  and  if,  therefore,  the  cast  is  sharp  at  first, 
the  least  rubbing  will  abrade  the  facing,  at  least  the 
finer  parts  of  it.  A  solution  of  white  hard  soap 
brushed  over  the  pattern  is  preferable,  but  if  the 
pattern  is  not  very  well  smoothed  or  well  varnished, 
if  of  wood,  the  cast  is  apt  to  adhere  to  the  pattern. 
In  most  cases  a  mixture  of  a  strong  solution  of  soap. 


108    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
•and  a  little  oil,  is  found  to  be  the  best  parting  material. 
Oil  generally  gives  a  colouring  to  the  white  plaster, 
white  hard  soap  does  not. 

The  Moulding  of  Statues  in  plaster  of  paris  is 
not  an  object  of  general  interest,  and  for  this  reason 
is  hardly  worth  the  pains  of  describing  and  reading 
an  essay  on  it;  but  as  it  affords  the  best  illustration 
of  moulding  busts  and  statues,  we  will  give  this 
subject  more  attention  than  we  otherwise  should 
do.  There  are  three  different  ways  of  moulding 
a  complicated  statue.  The  first  is  to  make  the 
mould  and  the  cast  in  parts,  and  screw  or  cement 
these  parts  together.  This  is  an  imperfect  mode 
of  forming  statues,  which  never  makes  correct 
work,  for  it  depends  not  only  on  the  moulder,  but 
also  on  the  finisher  who  puts  the  parts  of  the  statue 
together,  how  far  the  cast  may  be  true  to  the 
original  pattern.  The  parts  of  metal  statue.s  are 
screwed  together ;  if  plaster  they  are  cemented 
together  by  plaster,  and  the  joints  smoothed.  Statues 
of  this  kind  are  weak,  nor  can  they  be  correct,  as 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  destroy  all  traces  of  the 
joints. 

The  second  manner  of  forming  statues  is  to  cover 
the  original  with  a  thin  coating  of  plaster,  one-fourth 
to  one-half  of  an  inch  thick,  and  paint  this  coat  black, 


MOULDING.  169 

gi  \  ing  it  a  very  thin  film  of  charcoal-powder,  strength- 
ened with  glue,  and  over  this  coating  a  thick  coat  of 
gypsum,  two  or  three  and  more  inches  thick,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  pattern.  This  is  laid  on  with 
the  trowel.  When  this  last  coat  is  sufficiently  dry 
to  admit  working  at  it,  the  cope  is  divided  by  black 
chalk  into  so  many  parts  as  are  necessary  to 
secure  the  separation  of  the  cope  from  the  pat- 
tern. The  moulder  of  course  is  to  be  well  acquainted 
with  the  pattern,  or  he  could  not  with  any  certainty 
mark  the  parting-lines  on  the  cope,  having  no  means 
of  ascertaining  and  tracing  the  lines  on  the  pattern. 
To  make  this  operation  less  difficult,  a  part  of  the 
pattern  may  be  left  uncovered,  say  the  back  (of  a 
statue) ;  this  makes  the  tracing  of  the  partings  more 
safe.  The  omitted  part  is  covered  in  a  second  opera- 
tion, where  the  joining  is  formed  by  that  line,  and 
those  parts  of  the  cope  which  enclosed  the  covered 
space.  The  partings  are  effected  by  cutting  down 
with  a  chisel  or  saw  through  the  cope  to  the  black 
stratum,  and  breaking  the  first  covering  of  the  pattern. 
The  black  paint  forms  here  a  uniform  stratum  inter- 
lining the  cope ;  it  gives  warning  to  the  operator  to 
stop  cutting,  for  the  pattern  is  near.  This  mode  of 
operating  is  easy  and  safe,  as  it  makes  a  good 
and  correct  mould ;  but  the  broken  edges  which  form 
la 


170   '  MOULDER'S    AND    FOUNDERS   POCKET   GUIDE. 

the  parting  are  very  soon  injured,  and  show  un- 
sightly joints  on  the  casts.  For  plaster  this  me- 
thod is  imperfect;,  because  it  does  not  make  many 
good  casts.  One  cast  may  be  made  very  correctly, 
but  the  following  casts  are  not  certain.  The  parts 
of  the  mould  are  held  together  by  winding  tape  or 
twine  around  the  mould. 

The  third  plan  of  making  a  plaster  mould  is  tedious 
and  slow,  but  is  the  safest  and  most  correct,  and  by 
good  treatment  of  the  mould  may  admit  of  sixty 
and  more  castings  being  made  in  it.  The  manner 
of  forming  such  a  mould  is  the  following,  which, 
with  unimportant  modifications,  is  practised  in  making 
moulds  for  metal  casts.  The  surface  of  the  pattern 
is  marked  by  a  lead  pencil  with  such  divisions  -aa 
will  secure  the  lifting  of  that  part  of  the  mould 
from  off  the  pattern,  as  is  enclosed  by  such  marks. 
The  operation  of  making  the  mould  commences  on 
a  convenient  place,  by  enclosing  one  division  with 
fine  plastic  clay,  and  giving  the  borders  towards  the 
enclosed  space  that  form  which  will  cause  the  plaster 
to  have  the  shape  desired  for  that  particular  spot. 
The  space  enclosed  by  the  clay  is  then  filled  by 
plaster,  and  when  the  latter  is  settled,  and  so  fai 
iried  as  to  admit  its  removal,  the  clay  enclosure  is 
first  removed.  This  leaves  a  part  of  the  mould  to 


MOULDING.  171 

bo  made,  or  the  plaster  cast  standing.  TUs  cast 
may  be  one,  two,  or  three  inches  thick,  according  to 
circumstances,  it  being  the  object  to  equalize  the 
surface  of  the  mould,  so  as  to  have  less  abrupt  re- 
liefs. This  first  part  of  the  mould  is  taken  off  the 
pattern,  and  the  edges  cut. smooth  by  a  knife.  The 
taper  of  the  edges  is  so  calculated  as  to  form  the  joints 
of  an  arch,  so  that  when  all  parts  of  the  mould  are 
laid  together  without  the  pattern,  no  part  of  it  can 
move  or  fall  off  from  the  others.  To  secure  the 
relations  of  the  parts  of  the  mould  still  more  per- 
fectly, each  part  is  provided  with  warts  in  the  joints, 
fitting  into  opposite  hollows  of  the  next  part.  These 
warts  are  made  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  by  turning 
it  .backward  and  forward,  and  are  set  in  the 
middle  of  the  joints,  or  in  such  places  as  are  con. 
sidered  more  convenient  than  the  middle.  When 
the  first  part  is  dressed,  it  is  again  put  in  its  place, 
and  one  side  of  it  joined  by  clay  enclosures.  If  the 
space  now  to  be  covered  is  square,  the  plaster  will 
form  one  side  of  it,  and  the  three  other  sides  are 
formed  with  clay.  This  second  space  is  again  filled 
by  plaster,  and  it  forms  part  No.  2  of  the  mould. 
One  side  of  No.  2  fits  to  one  side  of  No.  1,  and 
three  are  to  be  dressed  and  provided  with  hollows 
for  warts.  In  this  way  the  whole  pattern  is  covered 


172  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
•with  small  parts  of  the  mould,  which  in  many  cases 
require  fifty  or  more  cores  or  parts.  The  last  part 
of  course  is  cast  without  any  clay  to  form  the  en- 
closure, and  is  generally  without  warts  to  form  the 
starting  point  in  separating  the  mould.  When  the  pat- 
tern is  perfectly  covered  with  this  mould,  the  surface 
of  the  mould  is  dressed  and  cut  smooth,  to  remove 
all  sharp  angles  and  abrupt  reliefs.  Over  this  first 
cope  is  made  a  second  cope,  but  the  first  ought  to 
be  in  such  a  condition  that  the  second  divides  only 
into  two,  or  at  most  into  three  parts.  The  divisions  of 
the  first  cope  of  course  fit  exactly  hito  the  second,  and 
if  there  is  any  doubt  or  danger  that  one  of  the  parts 
of  the  first  cope  would  fall  out  from  the  others  in 
turning  the  mould,  that  part  is  to  be  provided  with 
a  wire  staple  to  which  a  string  is  fastened.  This  string 
passes  through  the  second  cope  and  is  secured  out- 
side. The  second  cope  may  also  be  provided  with 
warts  which  fit  in  corresponding  holes  in  the  first 
cope,  if  found  necessary,  which,  however,  is  not  often 
the  case.  The  whole  mould,  forming  a  comparatively 
heavy  mass  of  plaster,  is  held  together  as  in  other 
cases  by  means  of  tape. 

Large  Plaster  Castings  are  made  hollow.  This  is 
done  by  casting  first  a  small  quantity  of  fine  plaster 
in  the  mou'd,  and  in  turning,  the  mould  is  led  into 


MOULDING.  173 

all  parts  of  it,  and  gives  a  thin  covering  to  the  whole 
face  of  the  mould.  A  second  cast  of  coarse  plaster 
follows  the  first  soon  after,  and  this  is  equally  dis- 
tributed over  the  mould.  A  succession  of  such 
casts  will  give  any  thickness  desired.  Parts  which 
require  extra  strength  are  laid  on  by  hand  or  the 
trowel.  Statues  and  busts  generally  require  no  cast- 
gate,  because  they  are  open  below  and  are  cast  from 
that  side. 

Patterns  and  moulds  in  which  plaster  casts  are  to 
be  made,  are  coated  with  a  film  of  oil  or  soap  ;  but 
valuable  pieces  of  art,  as  marble  statues  or  busts,  do 
not  admit  of  oil  or  soap  without  injury,  and  these 
means  cannot  be  employed.  In  such  cases  the  pat- 
tern is  covered  by  tea-chest-tin  or  tin  foil,  but  so  as 
not  to  show  the  joints  of  the  foil.  The  tin-foil  is 
pressed  on  by  a  cloth-brush  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
secure  the  perfectly  close  covering  in  the  undulations 

The  face  of  a  living  or  dead  person  may  be 
copied  in  plaster  by  making  a  plaster  cast  over 
the  face.  The  limits  of  the  mask  are  marked 
by  laying  a  wet  cloth  around  the  face.  The 
hair  and  eyebrows  are  covered  by  pasting  some 
tin-foil  over  them.  Living  persons  are  to  have  twc 
paper  or  tin-plate  pipes  in  the  nose,  to  admit  of 
breathing  while  the  plaster  is  put  on  the  face.  Such 
15* 


174    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
masks  are  generally  used  as  patterns  for  making 
busts  of  those  persons  from  whom  they  are  taken. 
The  hair,  ears,  and  the  back  part  of  the  head,  are 
to  be  supplied  by  the  artist. 

Sulphur  is,  next  to  plaster  of 'paris,  the  most  valu- 
able material  for  sharp  castings ;  but  its  application 
is  limited  to  very  small  castings,  on  account  of  its 
brittleness.  It  can  be  cast  over  metals  and  many 
other  materials  without  oil,  and  gives  for  these 
reasons  very  sharp  impressions.  Sulphur  may  be 
cast  over  a  coin  by  surrounding  the  coin  with  a  ring 
of  paper ;  the  melted  sulphur  will  not  kindle  the 
paper  if  it  has  the  proper  heat.  In  melting  sulphur 
for  casting,  it  is  not  to  be  overheated ;  at  first  heat 
it  melts  to  a  transparent  clear  fluid,  and  that  is  the 
time  to  cast  it.  More  heat  transforms  it  into  a 
Dasty  mass,  which  cannot  be  used.  The  kindling 
of  the  sulphur  should  be  prevented,  by  all  means,  for 
it  will  impart  a  dirty  gray  colour  to  the  sulphur. 
Sulphur  may  be  mixed  with  foreign  matter  to  aug- 
ment its  strength.  One  part  of  plaster  of  paris, 
and  two  of  sulphur,  improve  the  tenacity  of  sulphur 
without  diminishing  its  capacity  for  fine  impression 
Next  to  the  above,  fine  Spanish  brown,  fine  chalk,  or 
clay  in  powder,  maybe  mixed  with  it.  Throe  parts 


MOULDING.  1 75 

of  sulphur,  and  one  of  silver,  is  a  good  composition 
for  sharp  and  durable  impressions. 

Wax  in  its  pure  state,  as  well  as  mixed  with  other 
matter,  is  a  useful  material  for  castings,  but  it  shrinks 
considerably.  It  requires  skill  not  to  cast  it  too 
warm,  or  too  cold.  In  the  first  case  its  castings 
will  be  defaced,  in  the  latter  they  will  not  take 
snarp  impressions.  Wax  may  be  mixed  and  suc- 
cessfully used  with  plumbago,  cinnabar,  white-lead, 
plaster  of  paris,  and  other  substances.  The  mould 
wherein  wax  is  to  be  cast,  is  to  be  very  cold  or 
wet,  if  the  material  admits  of  the  absorption  of 
moisture.  When  the  face  of  the  mould  is  covered 
by  a  thin  coating  of  wax,  the  surplus  fluid  wax  may 
be  cast  back  into  the  ladle.  A  thin  cast  will  not 
shrink  so  much  as  a  thick  cast. 

Seating-wax,  isinglass,  and  glue,  are  also  materials 
for  making  casts  of,  and  are  frequently  used  for  small 
articles.  There  is  one  composition  to  which  we 
have  to  allude  more  particularly ;  it  is  a  composition 
used  in  making  elastic  moulds,  for  casting  in  plaster  of 
paris — eight  parts  of  glue,  four  parts  of  molasses, 
mixed  and  boiled  together,  and  to  this  gradually 
added  one  part  of"  varnish  or  boiled  linseed-oil. 
This  mass  is  cast  hot  over  a  pattern,  and  when  cooled 
may  be  easily  removed.  It  forms  a  gelatinous 


176  MOULDER'S  AJD  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
mass,  and  makes  an  excellent  mould  for  plaster 
casts,  having  the  great  advantage  of  admitting  of 
under-carving  the  pattern.  Such  a  mould  will  not 
make  more  than  six  or  eight  sharp  casts ;  but  as  the 
making  of  the  mould  is  no  object,  it  is  the  cheapest 
and  quickest  way  of  forming  a  mould  for  casting 
plaster  in. 

Alum  cautiously  melted,  so  as  not  to  expel  its 
water  of  crystallization,  will  assume  a  very  fluid 
appearance,  and  may  be  cast  in  small  moulds  with 
success.  Thirty  parts  of  alum  and  one  of  salt- 
petre is  still  better ;  it  makes  opaque  castings  of 
a  beautiful  white.  Five  parts  of  alum  and  one  of 
common  salt  melted  together,  makes  transparent 
sharp  castings.  Melted  saltpetre  by  itself,  may  be 
cast  in  hot  metallic  moulds,  and  makes  castings 
of  a  fine  alabaster  appearance. 

Moulding  Natural  Objects. — A  mould  over  an 
object  of  nature,  as  over  a  small  animal,  a  flower,  or 
leaves,  may  be  made  in  the  following  way.  The 
dead  animal,  say  a  fly,  or  a  bug  of  any  kind,  is  put 
with  its  feet  upon  a  ring  of  wax,  so  as  to  place  the 
feet  and  everything  else  in  such  a  position  as  we 
want  it  in  the  cast.  This  wax  ring  will  form  the 
channel  or  gate  for  the  fluid  metal.  The  object — 
animal  or  leaf — is  painted  with  a  very  thin  solution 


MOULDING.  177 

of  gum-shellac  in  alcohol;  and,  after  being  dried,  is 
placed  in  a  small  pasteboard  box,  and  so  fixed  by  means 
of  small  wires  as  to  secure  it  in  a  permanent  position. 
These  wires,  after  being  withdrawn,  form  air  channels 
through  the  mould.  A  small  tapered  pin  of  wood  is 
fastened  in  some  convenient  place  for  making  a 
cast-gate.  A  mixture  of  three  parts  of  fine  plaster 
of  paris,  and  one  part  of  fine  brick-dust,  formed  by 
an  adequate  amount  of  water,  to  which  a  little  alum 
and  an  equal  portion  of  sal-ammonia  is  added,  into 
a  thin  pap,  is  now  gently  cast  over  the  pattern, 
under  continued  shaking  of  the  mould,  or  if  that 
cannot  be  done  because  the  pattern  is  too  delicate, 
the  pattern  may  be  first  covered  by  means  of  a  fine 
camel's-hair  brush,  with  a  thin  coating  of  the  above 
mixture,  and  then  the  remainder  cast  over  it.  When 
this  cast  is  hardened,  the  pasteboard  enclosure  is 
removed,  and  the  cast  gently  but  very  strongly  dried. 
After  all  the  water  is  expelled,  the  mould  is  brought 
slowly  and  gradually  to  a  cherry-red  heat,  to  expel  and 
burn  all  the  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  A  mould 
of  pure  plaster  would  not  resist  such  a  heat  without 
falling  to  pieces,  but  an  addition  of  brick-dust  and  alum 
gives  it  that  resistance  to  heat  which  is  needed. 
The  sal-ammonia  is  added  to  facilitate  the  destruction 
of  the  natural  pattern,  the  animal  or  plant.  The 


178    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

cooling  of  the  burnt  mould  is  to  be  performed  equally 
as  slowly  as  the  burning  itself,  to  prevent  its  breaking. 
In  the  cooled  mould  some  mercury  is  cast  and  gently 
shaken.  By  gradually  adding  more  quicksilver,  the 
remains  of  the  pattern  which  may  be  left  in  the 
mould  will  float  on  the  mercury,  and  may  be  brought 
out.  By  repeating  the  latter  operation,  all  impurities 
may  be  effectually  removed.  Before  casting  any 
metal  in  this  mould  it  ought  to  be  heated  to  a  certain 
degree,  which  degree  will  depend  in  some  measure 
on  the  mass  of  the  pattern,  and  the  metal  to  be  cast 
in  it.  Very  thin  fine  patterns,  and  metals  which  con- 
geal quickly,  require  a  hotter  mould  than  the  reverse 
qualities.  Silver  is  the  best  qualified  for  such  casts  : 
after  this,  type  metal,  tin-solder,  and  fusible  alloys. 
A  cast  made  in  this  way  may  be  prepared  to  form 
a  pattern  for  the  current  business  of  the  foundry. 
If  the  mould  has  been  hot  and  the  metal  also,  the 
casts  are  generally  so  perfect  as  to  show  the  finest 
nerves  of  the  pattern.  Larger  objects  may  be  mould- 
ed quite  as  successfully  as  small  ones,  but  it  requires 
more  experience  to  succeed  as  well. 


CHAPTER  H. 
FOUNDING. 

MELTING  OF  METALS. 

Iron. — It  is  impossible  to  qualify  the  various 
kinds  of  pig-iron  brought  into  the  market,  by 
local  terms  and  marks.  It  would,  after  all,  not 
be  of  any  use,  because  the  produce  of  one  and 
the  same  furnace  may  change  in  one  week's  time 
from  No.  1  iron  to  No.  2  or  even  No.  3,  which 
certainly  makes  a  great  difference  in  its  application 
in  the  foundry.  There  are,  however,  distinctions 
in  the  quality  of  iron  caused  by  the  ore,  or  by 
the  fuel  which  has  been  used  in  its  manufacture,  as 
charcoal  or  anthracite ;  as  well  as  by  manipula- 
tion. We  will  allude  to  these  local  and  practical 
differences  when  pointing  out  the  specific  qualities  of 
metal  for  certain  purposes,  and  confine  our  demon- 
strations at  present  to  general  remarks.  Taking  no 
notice  of  the  difference  between  charcoal,  anthi-acite, 
and  coke  or  stone-coal  iron,  we  have  three  distinct 
qualities,  known  as  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3  iron. 

No.  1,  or  Dark  Gray  Pig-iron,  is  the  foundry  iron. 

(179) 


180  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
This  pig-iron  is,  if  anthracite  and  charcoal,  mostly 
of  a  coarse-grained,  apparently  crystalline  fracture. 
There  are,  however,  no  crystals ;  the  form  of  the 
fracture  is  an  aggregation  of  leaves.  Iron,  and  the 
black  graphite  with  which  it  is  intermixed,  appear  to 
assume  the  same  crystal  form ;  they  are  so  closely 
united  that  no  distinction  can  be  made  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  form  of  the  crystals,  if  there  is  any.  Coke- 
pig,  No.  1  stone-coal  iron,  and  hot-blast  iron,  are 
generally  finer  in  the  grain  than  the  above-mentioned 
qualities.  Pennsylvania  anthracite  pig  No.  1,  and 
Pittsburgh  or  Hanging-Rock  No.  1,  are  generally  very 
coarse  and  black  in  the  grain  fracture.  Charcoal 
iron  No.  1  from  the  Eastern  States,  Maryland,  Alle- 
gheny river,  and  Ohio  river,  Tennessee  and  Ken- 
tucky, is  generally  hot-blast,  and  finer  in  the  grain 
than  the  above.  Scottish  pig,  is  of  a  fine-grained 
fracture. 

The  pig-iron  of  this  class  is  soft,  and  often  tender: 
most  of  our  own  manufactured  iron  is  strong.  It 
melts  very  fluid,  and  cools  very  slowly,  which  quali- 
fies it  particularly  for  castings.  This  iron,  if  very- 
gray,  may  be  remelted  once  or  twice,  but  the  fine- 
grained kinds,  and  those  which  contain  less  carbon, 
or  are  exposed  to  too  much  fresh  air  in  melting,  turn 
into  the  following,  or 


FOUNDING.  181 

2Vb.  2  Iron. — This  contains  less  carbon  than  the 
above,  is  more  gray  in  appearance,  and  of  a  finer 
grain.  If  approaching  near  to  No.  1,  it  is 
the  best  foundry  iron,,  for  it  is  stronger  than  No.  1. 
If  this  iron  assumes  a  more  gray  colour,  it  is  not 
qualified  for  small  castings,  but  is  very  excellent  for 
large  castings  in  dry  moulds.  It  melts  fluid,  fills 
the  mould  well,  makes  less  sullage  than  No.  1,  and 
does  not  burn  the  mould  so  much  as  the  above. 
It  is  tenacious,  may  be  filed,  turned,  planed,  and 
polished ;  it  is  close,  and  more  certain  to  be  free 
from  impurities  than  No.  1. 

No.  3,  is  white  pig-iron.  By  remelting  No.  1  and 
No.  2  under  the  influence  of  a  liberal  access  of  air, 
they  will  be  converted  into  No.  3.  This  iron  is 
white,  and  most  of  it  of  a  bright  crystalline  fracture. 
It  is  of  no  use  in  the  foundry. 

The  quality  of  foundry-pig  in  our  Atlantic  cities, 
also  in  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  other  cities  along 
the  western  rivers,  is  no  doubt  of  such  perfection  that 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  making  any  quality  and  kind  of 
castings  in  any  of  these  places.  There  is  hardly  alimit 
to  the  variety  of  good  foundry-pig  in  these  markets. 
Some  general  remarks  on  the  characteristics  of  pig- 
iron  for  foundry  purposes  will  however  be  in  place, 

Dark  G-ray  pig-iron,  with  large  leaves  of  plumbago 
1C 


1>'2  MOULDER'S  AND  POUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
is  qualified  for  small  castings,  as  hollow- ware  and 
small  machinery,  but  would  not  answer  so  well  for 
heavy  castings,  which  require  strength.  There  are, 
however,  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  pig-iron  most 
useful  for  the  very  finest  kind  of  castings,  is  to  be 
fine-grained.  Coarse-grained  pig  will  not  fill  a  fine 
mould,  at  least  will  give  but  dull  impressions.  If  pig- 
iron  contains  a  little  phosphorus,  it  may  be  fine- 
grained and  still  be  an  excellent  foundry  iron,  par- 
ticularly for  hollow-ware  and  stoves.  Hollow-ware 
made  of  gray  iron  which  contains  much  carbon  or 
plumbago,  is  liable  to  cooking  black;  this  evil  is  not 
so  apparent  where  pig-iron  of  lighter  colour,  contain- 
ing a  little  phosphorus,  is  used.  Black  iron  is  not 
qualified  for  large  or  heavy  castings,  as  it  is  generally 
too  spongy. 

Hot-blast  and  cold-blast  iron  are  simultaneously 
brought  into  the  market,  and  the  former  is  frequently 
sold  for  the  latter.  For  foundry-pig  it  makes  but 
little  difference  whether  made  with  hot  or  cold-blast, 
and  we  may  say,  generally  speaking,  that  hot-blast 
iron  is  preferable  to  cold-blast,  because  the  grain  is 
finer,  the  iron  more  uniform,  and  it  runs  more  fluid 
than  the  latter.  In  anthracite  and  stone-coal  pig 
there  is  but  one  kind,  and  that  is  hot-blast.  A 
difference  is  often  found  in  charcoal-pig,  but  then  it 


FOUNDING.  183 

is  generally  marked  cold  or  hot-blast,  when  made  at 
an  establishment  of  reputation.     To  distinguish  cold- 
blast  from  hot-blast  iron,  is  almost  impossible.     The 
only  permanent   difference   is  a  finer  grain  in   hot 
than  in  cold-blast,  provided  the  amount  of  carbon 
fn  both  kinds  of  iron  is  the  same,  and  the  iron  is  made 
from  the  same  kind  of  ore.     This  mark  of  distinction 
is,  however,  very  doubtful,  and  may  lead  to  errors. 
A  more  certain  criterion  is  the  colour  and  lustre  of 
the  pig,  in  a  fresh  fracture.     Provided  all  other 
things — as  ore,  coal,  manufacture — are  equal,  the 
fracture  of  hot-blast  iron  is  duller  than  that  of  cold 
blast ;  the  latter  shows  more  life  than  the  first,  and  a 
freshness  of  colcur,  which  is  not  so  clearly  expressed  in 
hot-blast  iron.     Hot-blast  iron  is  frequently  found 
to  be  of  a  fine   grain,   interspersed  with  clusters 
of  coarse  grains,  the  fine  parts  of  a  dull  appearance. 
These  distinctions  of  colour  are  a  safer  criterion 
than  the  size  of  the  grain,  but  both  together  may 
afford  some  means  of   distinguishing    between    the 
two.     It  would  be  of  little  value  to  know  whether 
a  specimen  of  iron  was  smelted  by  hot  or  by  cold- 
blast  ;  but  as  the  cold-blast  iron  contains  less  carbon 
and  impurities,  if  of  the  same  colour  as  hot-blast, 
*nd  as  a  mixture  of  cold-blast  and  hot-blast  iron 


L°4    MOULDERS  AND  FOUNDERS  POCKET  GUIDE. 

makes  the  strongest  castings,  it  is  desirable  to  hav* 
the  two  qualities  separated. 

The  mixing  of  different  kinds  of  iron  is  an  object 
of  considerable  interest,  and  all  foundries  ought  tc 
make  their  own  experiments  to  ascertain  the  strength 
of  the  material  they  are  working.  In  making  orna- 
mental casts,  strength  is  of  secondary  consideration, 
but  in  machinery,  and  beams  for  architecture,  it  is 
of  the  first  importance.  In  foundries  where  machi- 
nery is  cast,  or  water  pipes  or  beams  for  bridges  or 
architecture,  there  should  be  means  of  testing  the 
strength  of  their  cast-iron.  The  safest  and  best 
way  of  doing  this,  is  to  have  a  standard  pattern, 
say  a  prism  of  two  feet  long,  one  inch  thick,  and 
two  inches  wide.  This  pattern  is  to  be  moulded  in 
a  particular  flask,  with  uniformly  dry  sand,  and 
cast  inclined  at  a  particular  degree.  The  mix- 
ture of  iron  is  made  in  a  crucible  melted  in  an 
air  furnace.  This  trial  or  proof-bar  is  fastened 
with  one  end  in  a  vice,  and  at  the  other  end  a  plat- 
form is  suspended,  upon  which  so  much  weight  is 
piled  as  to  break  the  bar.  In  the  mean  time  the 
deviation  from  the  straight  line,  or  from  its  original 
position,  is  measured.  In  this  way  the  relative 
strength  as  well  as  the  degree  of  elasticity  may  be 
measured,  and  the  relations  of  the  strength  of  ono 


POUNDING.  Ig5 

mixture  of  iron  to  the  other,  decided  on  with  great 
certainty.  This  is  not  to  be  considered  a  scientific 
experiment — it  is  a  mere  matter  of  local,  practical 
interest.  Under  all  conditions,  a  mixture  of  iron 
melted  together  is  stronger  than  the  average  strength 
of  the  whole,  each  measured  by  itself.  Hot- blast 
iron  has  the  advantage  of  being  of  a  more  uniform 
texture  than  cold-blast  iron,  and  being  more  firmly 
united  with  carbon.  .A  mixture  of  hot-blast  iron 
may  therefore  be  made  which  supersedes  any  cold- 
blast  iron,  in  respect  to  strength,  provided  hot  and 
cold-blast  are  made  of  the  same  materials,  and  in 
the  same  manufactory.  The  kinds  of  pig-iron  which 
are  to  be  mixed  together  to  form  the  strongest  com- 
pound, are  difficult  to  decide  upon  here.  It  depends 
very  much  upon  the  experience  of  the  founder, 
and  also  on  circumstances  which  are  beyond 
his  control.  Few  of  our  blast-furnaces  have  yet 
settled  upon  a  definite  quality  and  mixture  of 
ore,  shape  of  the  furnace,  and  other  matters  which 
influence  the  quality  of  the  iron  smelted.  So  long 
as  such  matters  are  not  definitely  settled,  no  brand 
of  pig-iron  can  be  depended  upon  for  its  quality. 
In  purchasing,  the  buyer  is  to  depend  upon  his  own- 
experience  and  chance.  If  pig-iron  is  too  gray*  or 
too  spongy,  it  may  be  improved  by  adding  No.  3 
16* 


186  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
iron,  or  in  most  cases  scraps  of  old  castings  arc1 
preferable.  Very  black-gray  iron  will  bear  an 
addition  of  30  per  cent,  of  No.  3  pig  or  scrap.  Iron 
which  contains  too  little  carbon  is  successfully  im- 
proved by  adding  No.  1  until  the  wished-for  strength 
and  texture  are  obtained.  In  all  cases  iron  from 
different  furnaces  ought  to  be  mixed  together,  and  if 
there  is  any  possibility  of  obtaining  iron  from  differ- 
ent localities  and  different  ores,  it  is  to  be  preferred. 
An  anthracite  pig  of  the  Schuylkill  region  is  stronger 
if  some  Scottish  pig  is  added  to  it ;  charcoal  iron  from 
the  State  of  New  York,  or  from  Baltimore,  is  still 
better  for  that  purpose.  The  superior  qualities 
of  Ohio  iron  may  be  made  still  stronger  by  mix- 
ing it  with  some  kinds  of  Allegheny  or  Tennessee 
iron.  In  all  cases,  however,  it  is  better  to  mix  No. 
1  of  one  kind  with  No.  2  or  No.  3,  or  scraps  ot 
another  kind.  And  if  possible,  mix  cold-blast  with 
hot-blast  iron.  The  strength  of  iron  depends  a 
great  deal  upon  the  mode  of  melting  it,  but  we  shall 
epeak  of  this  hereafter. 

Besides  the  consideration  of  strength,  economy 
in  many  instances  decides  the  qualities  of  iron  to 
be  worked  in  a  foundry.  True  economy,  however, 
is  that  which  secures  the  oest  castings,  and  gives 
most  security  in  avoiding  scraps  A  mixture  which 


FOUNDING.  187 

makes  a  close  and  compact  soft  gray  iron,  is  the 
best  in  all  these  instances. 

An  important  influence  in  mixing  iron  is  due  to  the 
kind  of  casting,  its  size,  and  its  purposes.  Iron  of 
which  beams  and  rolls  for  iron  mills  are  cast  would 
make  poor  hollow-ware  or  ornaments,  and  iron 
which  makes  sharp  impressions  on  small  articles,  is 
generally  not  qualified  for  heavy  articles.  Heavy 
machinery  is  best  made  of  No.  2  anthracite  iron, 
or  a  mixture  of  No.  1  anthracite,  and  No.  3  char- 
coal. The  variety  of  anthracite  iron  is  not  indifferent 
in  this  question,  for  there  is  some  very  weak,  also 
some  very  superior  iron.  Hanging  Rock  pig  of  good 
quality  is  no  doubt  the  strongest  cast  iron  in  the 
world,  and  it  would  be  an  advantage  to  western 
enterprise  if  scientific  experiments  were  made  to 
decide  the  value  in  numbers  of  its  superiority  ovei 
other  pig-iron.  Small  castings  and  ornamental 
castings  require  a  fusible  iron  which  coagulates  soon 
and  is  not  too  gray,  so  as  to  assume  sharp  impres- 
sions. Iron  containing  a  little  phosphorus,  being  a 
little  cold-short,  is  preferable  for  these  purposes ; 
that  smelted  of  bog-ores  is  the  proper  kind  for  small 
castings.  Railings  and  ornaments  which  require 
strength  to  resist  sudden  jerks,  are  to  be  cast  of 
a  fine-grained,  pure  iron,  free  fron?  phosphorus  o) 


188  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
any  such  admixture.  Chilled  rollers  or  chilled 
wheels  require  a  very  strong  No.  2  iron,  but  it  is 
preferable  to  make  No.  2  of  No.  1  and  scraps  or 
No.  3  charcoal.  In  hard  rollers  a  little  phosphorus 
floes  no  harm,  but  in  wheels  anj  pig-iron  made  of 
bog- ore  is  to  be  rejected. 

The  kind  of  mould  in  which  iron  is  cast  has  a 
decided  influence  upon  the  strength  of  the  cast. 
Machine  frames,  beams,  rollers,  and  all  castings 
which  require  strength,  are  to  be  cast  in  dry  sand  or 
loam,  for  green  sand  will  cool  the  cast  too  rapidly, 
and  cause  it  to  chill,  or  become  hard  and  brittle.  Cast- 
ings which  ought  to  have  a  good  smooth  surface,  to 
be  perfect,  require  a  green-sand  mould.  A  mould 
well  dusted  by  blackening  will  make  smooth  and 
good-looking  castings.  Thin  castings,  that  is,  cast- 
ings which  soon  cool,  are  always  more  smooth  than 
those  where  heavy  masses  of  metal  are  confined  to 
a  small  space.  Castings  which  require  strength  are 
to  be  cast  upright,  or  at  least  inclined,  having  the 
cast-gate  to  enter  from  below,  and  a  flow-gate  at  the 
highest  part  of  the  mould. 

MELTING  OF  CAST  IRON. 

Iron  in  the  Blast-Furnace, — Iron  is  in  some  few 
instances  used  directly  from  the  blast-furnace  to 
make  castings  of.  It  is  done  in  those  places  where 


FOUNDING.  189 

fusible  ores,  as  bog-ores  and  hematites,  are  smelted 
by  charcoal  in  small  blast-furnaces.  There  are 
but  few  establishments  where  this  is  practised ; 
some  are  along  the  Atlantic  sea-coast,  a  few  in  the 
interior  of  the  Eastern  States,  and  but  very  few  in 
the  Western  States.  The  whole  business  done  in 
this  way  does  not  amount  to  much.  There  is  really 
no  advantage  in  casting  directly  from  the  blast-fur- 
nace, for  the  iron  is  never  of  such  uniform  quality 
as  to  secure  good  castings.  It  is  on  the  whole  dis- 
advantageous, and  more  expensive  than  remelting 
the  cast  iron,  and  giving  it  a  proper  quality  by  mix- 
ing it  with  other  kinds  of  iron.  There  are,  however, 
instances  where  casting  from  the  blast-furnace  is  not 
only  excusable  but  necessary.  Where  bog-ores  are 
smelted  which  make  cold-short  iron,  it  is  advisable 
to  transform  the  iron  directly  from  the  blast-furnace 
into  castings.  Iron,  cold-short  of  phosphorus,  is 
generally  not  used  in  forges,  and  it  has  too  little 
carbon  to  admit  of  remelting.  There  is  hardly  any 
other  way  left  but  to  make  castings  of  such  iron. 
It  is  not  qualified,  however,  for  machine  frames,  01 
castings  which  ought  to  be  strong.  The  only  and 
best  purpose  it  is  adapted  to,  is  for  casting  hollow- 
ware  and  stoves  ;  it  will  form  fine  and  sharp  castings, 
•nd  cooking  pots  made  of  such  cold-short  iron  can- 


190  MOULDER'S  AND  FO&MDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
not  be  surpassed  in  quality.  It  makes  enamel  super- 
fluous. The  usual  way  of  casting  from  the  blast-fur- 
nace is  to  prepare  a  stopper  of  slag,  just  fitting  in 
below  the  timp  of  the  furnace.  This  stopper  will 
separate  the  interior  slag  and  that  in  the  forehearth 
of  the  furnace,  provided  the  stopper  reaches  down 
into  the  liquid  iron,  the  blast  at  the  furnace  of  course 
being  stopped.  The  surface  of  the  iron  in  the  fore- 
hearth,  after  being  cleared  of  its  slag,  is  clear  and 
will  keep  so,  provided  the  stopper  is  thick  enough 
and  remains  in  its  place.  The  iron  is  dipped,  with 
dippers  or  ladles  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  as  far  as 
this  can  be  accomplished ;  after  this  the  stopper  is 
removed,  the  cinder  from  the  back  of  the  hearth  drawn 
forward,  and  the  furnace  put  into  blast  again.  A 
more  perfect  way  of  taking  iron  from  the  blast-fur- 
nace is  to  make  a  dip-pool  in  one  of  the  tuyere 
arches,  provided  for  that  purpose,  and  where  there 
is  no  blast-pipe.  If  the  back  arch,  opposite  the 
work  arch,  is  chosen,  the  moulding  and  casting  may 
be  carried  on  very  conveniently,  without  coming  in 
contact  with  the  smelter  and  his  operations.  A  hole 
like  a  tap-hole  is  here  pierced  through  the  back  stone, 
jr  one  of  the  flanks  of  the  hearth,  down  at  the 
bottom  or  near  the  bottom,  and  around  this  hole  a 
round  basin  is  walled  up  in  fire-brick,  and  well  secu- 


FOUNDING.  191 

rod  in  its  place  by  iron  binders.  This  basin  need 
not  be  larger  than  to  admit  a  ladle.  The  hole  which 
puts  this  basin  in  connexion  with  the  interior  of  the 
furnace-hearth  is  to  be  of  such  a  height  over  the 
bottom  of  the  hearth  as  to  leave  a  cover  of  fluid 
iron  always  on  it.  This  pool  is  filled  with  some 
burning  charcoal  to  keep  it  warm,  and  as  the  iron 
rises  in  the  hearth  it  will  rise  in  the  pool,  from  which 
the  moulders  may  dip  and  take  it  at  any  time  they 
choose.  When  the  pool  is  once  thoroughly  hot,  it 
requires  no  charcoal  to  keep  it  so. 

In  figure  34  are  represented  two  ladles.  The  one 
is  made  of  cast  iron,  the  other  of  wrought  iron. 
The  latter  is  preferable  for  dipping,  because  there 
is  less  danger  of  its  being  burned.  These  ladles  are 
covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  loam,  indicated  by 
the  dotted  "lines.  A,  the  cast-iron  ladle,  receives  a 

Fig.  34. 
A  -Jf\ 


strong  washing  of  loam ;  B,  the  wrought-iron  one,  form* 
merely  the  bottom  to  a  clay  ladle.  The  well  worked 
clay  is  set  upon  the  edge  of  the  ladle  and  forms  * 


192      MOULDKU'S    AND   POUNDER'S   POCKET   GUIDE. 

dipper  as  large  as  the  moulder  may  choose  it  to  have. 
The  clay  is  put  on  every  day,  or  every  cast,  anew, 
and  it  is  to  be  well  burned  before  it  is  dipped  into 
the  iron,  or  dangerous  explosions  may  be  the  con- 
sequence of  such  neglect. 

Melting  Iron  in  Crucibles. — This  mode  of  melting 
is  not  now  practised,  but  it  was  formerly  in  use,  and 
is  still  so  for  some  particular  purposes.  All  the  fine 
iron  castings,  as  trinkets  and  similar  objects,  are  cast 
from  crucibles.  The  iron  melted  in  a  crucible  is 
very  quiet,  and  generally  not  so  hot  as  to  burn  the 
sand ;  it  makes  smoother  and  more  solid  castings 
than  iron  melted  in  a  different  way.  Compositions 
of  iron  may  be  made  and  melted  in  a  crucible,  which 
would  not  retain  their  quality  in  any  other  mode  of 
melting.  The  melting  in  crucibles  is  expensive, 
because  of  the  cost  of  crucibles,  coal,  and  labour ; 
but  there  are  instances  where  these  are  secondary 
considerations.  A  good  black-lead  crucible  ought 
to  last  ten  or  twelve  heats  of  fifty  pounds  each,  and 
as  the  plumoago  is  found  in  large  masses,  is  cheap, 
and  coal  is  no  object,  it  may  be  found  a  profitable 
way  of  making  small  castings  for  carpenters  and 
knife-manufacturers.  The  air  furnace  for  melting 
iron  in  crucibles  is  the  same  as  that  used  for  melting 
brass,  bronze,  and  similar  metals;  it  is  represented 


1'OUNDING.  193 

in  figure  35,  This  figure  explains  itself;  the  fur- 
nace is  put  below  ground  to  a  chimney  whose  lower 
interior  part  is  built  of  fire-brick,  as  well  as  the 
interior  of  the  furnace.  The  furnace  is  covered  by 

Fig.  35. 


a  cast-iron  plate,  a  kind  of  trap-door,  which  is 
balanced  by  a  weight  and  an  iron  chain  passing  over 
a  roller ;  or  in  any  other  convenient  way.  Tho 
grate  bars  are  simply  square  inch-rods  of  wrought 
or  cast  iron,  and  may  be  pulled  out  one  after  the 
other,  to  drop  coal  and  cinders  at  once,  or  to  clean 
the  furnace.  The  crucible  is  set  upon  a  piece  of  fire- 
brick which  rests  upon  the  grate.  The  bottom  of  a 
broken  crucible  inverted,  is  preferable  to  brick  as  a 
17 


194  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
sole-piece.  The  crucible  is  to  be  raised  from  three 
to  six  inches  above  the  grate,  according  to  the  fuel 
employed.  Charcoal  requires  the  highest  elevation, 
coke  less,  and  anthracite  the  least.  The  best  form 
for  the  furnace  pit  is  a  square :  the  four  corners 
resulting  from  this  arrangement  are  very  useful  to 
charge  fresh  fuel  in,  which,  if  the  furnace  is  round, 
requires  more  room  than  can  be  advantageously 
given.  The  crucibles  are  to  be  perfectly  dry  before 
they  are  put  in  the  furnace ;  the  least  moisture  will 
destroy  a  crucible  if  not  removed  before  exposing 
it  to  the  heat  of  a  furnace.  The  iron,  or  other  metal, 
is  to  be  heated  before  it  is  charged,  and  the  fuel 
must  be  dry  and  warm,  before  being  laid  around 
the  crucible.  The  mode  of  operation  is  simply  as 
follows.  The  grate  is  put  in  the  furnace,  and 
upon  it  the  brick-bat  or  broken  crucible,  which 
is  to  form  the  pedestal — sole-piece — of  the  crucible. 
The  fire  is  then  kindled  and  made  to  burn  briskly, 
while  the  crucible  and  metal  are  heated  on  the  door- 
plate.  When  the  interior  of  the  furnace  is  red  hot, 
and  the  fuel  burnt  as  low  down  as  the  sole-piece  in 
the  centre,  the  empty  crucible  is  put  upon  it,  and 
then  the  metal  in  pieces  gradually  charged,  until 
the  crucible  is  filled.  When  the  metal  is  partially 
melted,  there  will  be  room  for  more,  which  is 


POUNDING.  195 

piled  upon  the  other,  and  the  whole  covered  with  a 
few  scraps  of  glass,  which,  when  melted,  will  form  a 
film  on  the  surface  of  the  iron  to  protect  it  against 
the  access  of  air.  A  moveable  cover  of  crucible 
clay  will  serve  the  same  purpose  as  glass,  but  it  is 
more  troublesome  than  the  latter.  In  fifteen  minutes 
the  first  portions  of  iron  are  melted,  and  the  addition 
may  be  charged.  In  three-quarters  of  an  hour  the 
whole  of  the  iron  is  melted,  if  properly  attended  to, 
and  is  ready  for  casting.  The  fuel  is  always  kept 
as  high  as  the  crucible,  and  from  the  first  somewhat 
higher,  but  the  last  fuel  is  given  when  the  metal  is 
not  entirely  melted,  so  as  not  to  cool  the  fire  after 
that  by  fresh  fuel.  The  fuel  is  burned  down  at  last 
BO  far  as  to  free  the  crucible  of  it  to  a  certain  depth, 
and  to  admit  the  access  of  the  tongs  for  removing 
the  crucible.  The  tongs  are  made  of  strong  bars 
of  iron,  three-quarters  or  seven  eighths  square,  and 
and  from  four  to  six  feet  long,  one  end  provided 
with  prongs  bent  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a 
basket  to  catch  the  crucible  as  low  down  as  possible. 
These  tongs  are  suspended  in  a  chain  and  a  crane, 
or,  the  chain  very  long  and  fastened  to  the  ceiling 
of  the  building.  The  first  operation  is  to  move  the 
crucible  from  the  fire  and  at  the  same  time  put  it 
into  a  pot-handle  for  casting.  This  handle  is  the 


196  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE 
same  as  those  on  iron  pots,  to  be  described  hereafter, 
It  is  to  be  heated  previously,  to  prevent  injury  by 
cold  to  the  crucible.  Two  men  carry  the  crucible 
to  the  mould  and  cast,  and  return  the  crucible  di- 
rectly to  the  furnace,  into  which  it  is  set  without 
delay.  Gradual  charges  of  metal  are  now  given, 
and  the  melting  goes  on  as  before.  In  case  no  more 
metal  is  to  be  melted,  the  crucible  is  put  inversely 
in  the  fire  to  let  it  cool  slowly.  In  all  instances  a 
hot  crucible  is  to  be  put  inversely  in  case  it  is  set 
down  anywhere;  the  heated  bottom  of  a  crucible 
never  is  to  come  in  contact  with  anything  colder 
than  itself.  Four  or  more  furnaces  may  be  put  at 
one  stack,  and  as  many  may  be  put  in  a  row  as  is 
considered  necessary.  Charcoal  may  be  used  in 
these  furnaces,  coke  is  better,  but  the  best  fuel  is 
anthracite  coal.  The  danger  from  the  latter  is  its 
being  too  severe  upon  the  crucibles,  on  account  of  the 
great  heat  it  evolves. 

Melting  in  Reverberatory  Furnaces. — The  best 
melting  furnaces  on  the  large  scale  are  the  reverbe- 
ratories.  They  are  in  use  in  some  foundries  where 
the  proprietors  are  desirous  of  making  good  castings, 
but  are  in  a  great  measure  replaced  by  cupola  fur- 
naces. The  revert eratory  is  next  to  the  crucible  in 
making  good  foundry  metal:  it  gives  uniformity 


FOUNDING.  197 

to  the  various  qualities  of  pig-iron  charged,  and  the 
aaelted  iron  is  quite  free  from  air-holes,  and  flows  like 
lead  into  the  mould.  All  founders  and  engineers  agree 
that  castings  made  from  the  reverberatory  are  stronger 
than  those  from  the  cupola,  if  made  of  the  same 
iron.  In  figure  36  a  reverberatory  furnace  ia  repre- 


gented  in  section.  The  whole  interior  is  constructed 
of  fire-bricks,  and  cemented  by  fire-proof  clay.  The 
enclosure  is  generally  made  of  cast-iron  plates,  but 
we  also  find  furnaces  which  are  enclosed  in  common 
bricks,  bound  together  by  iron  cross  ties  or  binders. 
The  stack  is  generally  40  and  more  feet  high,  even  as 
high  as  80  feet ;  but  there  is  no  need  of  that,  as  40 
IT* 


198  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
feet  makes  sufficient  draft.  The  grate  is  3J  feet 
long  and  from  5  to  6  feet  wide,  or  as  wide  as  the 
interior  of  the  furnace.  The  hearth  is  from  5  to  8 
feet  long  and  equally  as  wide ;  it  slopes  gradually 
towards  the  chimney,  and  forms  a  basin  for  the 
accumulation  of  the  melted  metal.  The  fire-bridge, 
which  separates  the  fireplace  from  the  hearth,  is  from 
10  to  15  inches  high,  according  to  the  capacity  of 
the  furnace.  One  side  of  the  furnace  is  provided 
with  a  large  iron  sliding-door  for  charging  iron  and 
repairing  the  hearth ;  this  door  is  at  the  highest  part 
of  the  hearth,  near  the  fire-bridge.  In  the  lowest 
part  of  the  hearth,  in  the  centre  of  the  basin,  is  the 
tap-hole.  This  may  be  at  one  side  of  the  furnace, 
or  behind  the  stack  at  the  flue.  A  damper  on 
the  top  of  the  stack  is  a  useful  fixture  to  regulate  the 
draft.  A  furnace  of  this  kind  is  to  be  very  thick 
in  the  walls,  so  as  to  be  as  bad  a  conductor  of  heat 
as  possible.  Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to 
close  joints  in  the  brickwork ;  open  crevices  which 
admit  air  are  to  be  carefully  stopped  up,  or  the  iron 
is  liable  to  a  loss  of  carbon,  and  will  make,  in  con- 
sequence, hard  and  brittle  castings.  There  are  va- 
rious forms  of  reverberatory  furnaces  in  use,  but  the 
most  general  is  that  represented  above.  There  are 
furnaces  with  double  arches ;  that  is,  where  iron  is 


FOUNDING.  199 

melted  at  the  fire  and  at  the  flue-bridge,  and  the 
melted  metal  concentrates  in  the  centre  of  the 
hearth  where  the  arch  is  drawn  down.  There  are 
also  furnaces  where  the  cold  pig  is  charged  in  the 
centre  of  the  basin,  which  is  the  centre  of  the 
hearth ;  but  none  of  all  these  various  forms  is  supe- 
rior to  the  above.  The  pig-iron  is  here  charged 
behind  the  fire-bridge,  and,  as  it  melts,  flows  down 
into  the  basin.  The  impure  matter  adhering  to  the 
pig-iron,  and  which  does  not  melt,  as  sand  and  coal, 
will  remain  behind  the  bridge,  and  may  be  removed 
at  any  time  after  the  heat.  In  this  way,  the  melted 
iron  is  not  in  contact  with  any  impurities  which 
can  injure  it.  The  heat  of  the  furnace  is  generally 
greatest  near  the  flue,  and  the  melted  metal  is  in  this 
case  exposed  to  the  strongest  heat  of  the  furnace. 
The  manipulation  at  this  furnace  is  very  simple. 
When  a  cast  is  to  be  made  at  a  certain  time,  the 
furnace  is  heated  some  five  or  six  hours  before, 
and  a  brisk  fire  kept  all  the  time ;  for  it  will  take 
from  three  to  four  hours  before  the  furnace  is 
sufficiently  hot  to  charge  iron.  The  furnace  is  to 
be  white  hot  before  pig-iron  is  charged.  The  large 
door  is  then  opened  and  the  pig-iron  charged,  one 
ton  or  more  at  once ;  in  fact,  as  much  iron  as  ia 
required  to  make  the  cast  desired ;  for  it  is  not  con 


200    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

Sulered  advantageous  to  charge  cold  iron  whik  a 
part  is  already  melted.  All  the  iron  contained  in  a 
liquid  form  in  the  basin,  is  to  be  tapped  before  any 
fresh  pig  can  be  charged.  When  all  the  iron  con- 
tained in  the  furnace  is  melted,  the  tap-hole  is 
opened  with  a  sharp  crowbar,  and  the  liquid  iron 
either  let  into  pots  or  directly  into  the  mould.  The 
tap-hole  is  stopped  with  damp  sand,  or  a  mixture  of 
loam  and  coal-dust.  When  the  furnace  is  charged 
with  iron,  all  the  crevices  and  joints  at  the  door  and 
in  the  brick-work  are  to  be  cautiously  stopped  with 
moist  loam,  to  prevent  the  access  of  any  air  npon 
the  hearth.  The  firegrate  is  also  to  be  well  attended 
to,  and  kept  well  filled  with  coal,  but  not  too  high, 
so  as  to  impair  the  draft  of  air  through  the  fuel. 
The  grate  should  be  kept  free  from  clinkers,  and  the 
formation  of  holes  where  the  air  could  pass  through 
unburnt,  is  to  be  prevented. 

The  reverberatory  furnace  is  not  only  used  for  melt- 
ing iron,  but  is  also  employed  for  the  melting  of  large 
quantities  of  brass,  bronze,  tin,  lead,  and  other  alloys 
and  metals.  Large  bells,  statues,  machine-frames, 
and  similar  objects,  are  cast  from  the  reverberatory 
furnace.  All  metals,  except  very  gray,  fusible  iron, 
which  may  be  cast  from  a  pot,  are  to  be  run  in  dry 
sand-ditches,  directly  from  the  furnace  into  the 


FOUNDING.  201 

mould.  The  best  fuel  for  the  reverberatory  is  bitu- 
minous coal.  Hard  coal  or  coke  may  be  used,  but 
is  not  so  well  adapted  as  the  first.  The  disquali- 
fication of  the  latter  arises  partly  from  their  incom- 
bustible nature,  but  chiefly  on  account  of  the  mass 
of  fine  ashes  which  is  carried  over  from  the  fireplace 
to  the  hearth,  covering  the  melted  iron  and  prevent- 
ing its  absorption  of  heat.  This  evil  is  more  appa- 
rent in  the  use  of  anthracite  than  of  coke.  Wood, 
particularly  green  wood,  is  not  at  all  qualified  for 
use  in  the  reverberatory ;  if  no  mineral  coal  can  be 
obtained,  charcoal  is  to  be  substituted  for  it.  For  the 
general  character  and  quality  of  castings,  it  is  to  be 
regretted  that  the  reverberatory  furnace  for  the 
melting  of  iron  is  fast  disappearing.  Machine- 
frames  of  large  size,  rollers  for  iron  mills,  and  even 
chilled  rolls,  are  cast  from  the  cupola.  Machine, 
engine,  and  iron  manufacturers,  bridge  builders,  and 
architects,  ought  to  insist  on  having  their  castings 
done  from  iron  melted  in  the  reverberatory  furnace. 
Casts  from  the  blast-furnace  directly,  are  the  very 
weakest,  and,  next  to  it,  ranges  the  iron  of  the 
cupola.  The  reverberatory  and  the  crucible  make 
the  strongest,  closest,  and  safest  castings. 

The  Cupola,  has  the  advantage  of  melting  iron 
cheaper  than  any  other  furnace.     Besides  this,  it  is  a 


202    MOULDER'S  AND  IOTJNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

very  convenient  apparatus,  because  a  small  amount 
of  iron,  say  fifty  pounds,  or  as  large  a  quantity  as 
five  or  six  tons,  may  be  melted  in  a  short  time,  with 
comparatively  a  small  amount  of  fuel,  and  in  furnaces 
showing  but  little  difference  in  size  as  well  as  form. 
In  casting  small  objects,  as  hollow-ware,  agricultural 
implements,  architectural  ornaments,  and  similar 
forms,  and,  in  fact,  in  all  cases  where  the  strength 
of  the  metal  is  a  secondary  consideration,  there  is 
no  question  but  the  cupola  is  the  best  form  of 
melting-furnace.  There  is  a  great  variety  in  the 
form  of  cupolas,  but  only  in  minor  points ;  all 
cupolas  generally  agree  with  the  form  represented 
in  Fig.  37.  In  A,  a  section  of  the  cupola-furnace 

Fig.  37. 


1 


I- 


n 


FOUNDING.  203 

is  shown,  with  another  section  to  represent  the 
sloping  bottom.  It  consists  of  a  cylindrical  cloak 
or  enclosure  of  boiler-plate  or  cast-iron,  of  from 
three  to  six  feet  in  diameter.  This  rests  upon  two 
brick  walls,  B  B,  which  are  overlaid  by  a  square 
iron  plate,  having  a  round  orifice  as  large  as  the  in- 
terior of  the  furnace.  This  orifice  is  closed  when 
the  furnace  is  in  operation,  by  an  iron  door,  C,  shut 
and  held  close  by  means  of  an  iron  bar  propped 
against  it.  When  the  furnace  is  going  out  of  blast, 
and  is  to  be  emptied  of  its  contents,  this  door  is  let 
down,  and  with  it  the  slag  and  hot  coal  of  the  inte- 
rior will  drop.  The  inside  of  the  furnace  is  lined 
with  fire-brick,  or  it  may  be  lined  with  a  mixture  of 
fire-clay  and  river-sand,  firmly  rammed  in  and 
gently  dried.  A  good  lining  for  a  cupola  may  be 
made  of  turnpike-mud,  where  the  road  is  macadam- 
ised with  flint  or  hard  sand-stone ;  but,  where  iron 
or  lime  is  contained  to  some  extent  in  such  mud,  it 
should  be  rejected.  Some  cupolas  are  but  four  feet 
in  height,  while  others  are  made  from  eight  to  nine 
feet  high.  We  consider  five  feet  as  too  great  a  height ; 
there  is  no  other  advantage  in  it  than  having  a 
larger  body  of  fuel  at  once  on  fire,  which  may  be 
effected  to  more  advantage  by  a  greater  diameter. 
Low  furnaces,  even  as  low  as  three  feet,  use  'ess 


204  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
fuel  than  the  higher  ones.  The  width  of  cupolas 
is  quite  as  variable  as  the  height ;  there  are  fur- 
naces of  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  some 
are  four  feet.  With  charcoal,  eighteen  inches  wide 
and  one  tuyere  will  make  hot  iron,  but  coke  requires 
at  least  twenty-four  inches  and  two  tuyeres,  and 
anthracite  thirty  inches  or  more  to  produce  the 
same  result.  A  cupola  is  generally  overbuilt  by  a 
spacious  chimney,  to  lead  the  hot  gases  over  the 
roof  of  the  building  ;  but  a  sheet-iron  pipe  will  serve 
quite  as  well  as  a  brick  chimney.  The  lining  of  a 
cupola  should  be  at  least  nine  inches  thick,  and  may 
be  still  thicker,  if  made  of  fire-brick.  These  bricks  are 
to  be  laid  in  fire-clay  mortar,  a  mixture  of  refractory 
sand,  and  as  much  fire-clay  as  is  needed  to  hold  the 
sand  together.  The  tuyeres  are  generally  from  ten 
to  fifteen  inches  above  the  iron  bottom  of  the  fur- 
nace, and  are  simply  round  orifices,  of  the  size  of  the 
nozzle,  cut  through  the  in-wall.  For  small  fur- 
naces, but  one  tuyere  is  used  at  the  back  of  the 
furnace ;  for  larger  furnaces,  at  least  two  tuyeres 
are  needed ;  and  for  still  larger,  and  particularly 
hard-coal  furnaces,  we  frequently  find  six  or  eight 
tuyeres,  cut  in  the  same  horizontal  plane,  in  one 
furnace.  If  the  diameter  of  the  furnace  is  large, 
the  tuyeres  are  multiplied,  in  order  to  generate 


FOUNDING.  205 

a  uniform  heat  at  all  points  in  the  furnace.  Where 
a  large  quantity  of  iron  is  to  be  melted  at  once, 
tuyeres  are  cut  one  above  the  other ;  if  the  melted 
iron  is  raised  to  the  height  of  the  lowest  tuyeres, 
these  are  stopped  with  fire-clay,  and  the  next  above 
opened,  and  if  the  iron  is  raised  to  the  second,  it  is 
also  stopped  up,  and  the  next  higher  put  in  ope- 
ration. This  process  is  continued  until  all  the  iron 
required  for  the  cast  is  in  the  furnace.  The  ver- 
tical distance  between  the  tuyeres  is  generally  six 
inches.  The  nozzles  of  the  tuyeres  are  simply  sheet- 
iron  conical  pipes,  of  from  three  to  five  inches  in 
width  at  the  narrowest  part.  The  conducting-pipe 
from  the  fan  to  the  furnace  ought  to  be  at  least 
twice  the  diameter  of  the  nozzle,  or  four  times  as 
large  as  the  area  of  all  the  nozzles.  Where  more 
than  two  tuyeres  are  used  in  one  furnace,  we  fre- 
quently see  a  square  cast-iron  pipe  surrounding  the 
furnace ;  in  this  pipe  are  as  many  orifices,  directed 
towards  the  centre  of  the  furnace,  as  there  are 
tuyeres  ;  the  nozzles  are  attached  to  these  orifices. 

The  operation  in  a  cupola  is  simple.  If  iron  is 
to  be  melted,  the  first  thing  to  be  done,  is  to  lock 
the  iron  door  at  the  bottom,  then  fill  in  a  bottom  of 
sand :  moulding-sand  is  generally  used  in  cases  where 
but  a  small  quantity  of  iron  is  to  be  melted.  If  a  large 
18 


206  MOULDER'S  AND.  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE., 
quantity  of  melted  metal  is  required,  a  more  re- 
fractory sand  is  used.  The  fire  is  kindled  by  laying 
a  few  chips  of  wood  on  the  bottom,  and  placing 
upon  them  some  coke,  stone-coal,  charcoal,  or  anthra- 
cite. The  fire  is  kindled  through  the  tap-hole, 
which  is  at  least  six  or  eight  inches  wide.  The  tap- 
hole  is  left  open  to  admit  fresh  air  for  promoting  the 
combustion.  The  tuyeres  are  also  left  open.  The 
furnace  is  now  filled  to  its  mouth  with  fuel,  which 
is  kept  at  a  brisk  combustion.  It  generally  re 
quires  two  or  three  hours  to  heat  or  prepare  the 
furnace  for  blast,  which  is  not  put  on  until  the  flame 
appears  on  the  top  of  the  fuel.  When  the  furnace 
is  thoroughly  heated,  the  nozzles  are  laid  in  and  the 
blast-machine  is  put  in  operation.  Previous  to 
this,  however,  the  large  tap-hole  is  stopped  up  with 
moulding-sand,  or  with  a  more  fire-proof  sand  mixed 
with  clay,  leaving  a  small  orifice  at  the  bottom, 
which  forms  the  tap-hole  for  the  iron.  This  tap- 
hole  is  1|  or  2  inches  wide,  and  is  formed  by  placing 
a  tapered  round  iron  bar  in  the  place  where  the 
hole  is  to  be,  ramming  the  sand  tightly  around 
it,  and  removing  it  as  soon  as  the  hole  is  filled  up. 
The  blast,  when  put  on,  will  drive  a  flame  through 
the  small  tap-hole  as  well  as  out  of  the  top  of  tho 
furnace.  The  small  tap-hole  is  kept  open  to  drj 


FOUNDING.  207 

the  fresh  loam  or  sand  more  perfectly,  and  also  to 
glaze  the  tap-hole  so  as  to  resist  the  abrading  fric- 
tion of  the  tapping-bar.  The  flame,  also,  helps  to 
glaze  the  lining  of  the  furnace,  which  is  more  or 
less  injured  after  every  smelting,  and  requires 
mending  with  fresh  fire-clay.  When  the  furnace  is 
to  hold  a  large  quantity  of  metal,  the  large  tap- 
hole  is  covered  by  an  iron  plate,  which  is  fastened 
by  wedges  to  the  iron  enclosure,  leaving  only  the 
email  tap-hole  free.  The  iron  is  charged  as  soon  as 
tne  lower  parts  of  the  furnace  show  a  white  heat, 
wnich  is  best  known  by  the  colour  of  the  flame  that 
issues  from  the  tap-hole,  it  being  at  first  a  light  blue, 
but,  with  increasing  heat,  assumes  a  whitish  colour, 
and  apparently  a  higher  heat.  In  about  ten  minutes 
after  charging  the  iron  the  melted  metal  appears  at 
the  tap-hole,  which  is  now  closed  by  a  stopper  made 
of  loam,  which  is  worked  in  the  hand  until  it  assumes 
a  certain  degree  of  tenacity  ;  a  round  ball  of  it  is 
then  fastened  on  the  end  of  a  stick  of  wood,  pro- 
vided with  a  disc  of  iron,  which,  being  previously 
wet,  is  then  pressed  into  the  tap-hole.  A  charge  of 
iron  never  "consists  of  less  than  two  hundred  pounds, 
and,  in  most  cases,  of  four  or  five  hundred  pounds. 
Pig-iron  is  broken  into  pieces  of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
inches  in  length  before  it  is  charged.  From  ten  to 


208  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
twelve  pounds  of  fuel  are  consumed  and  charged 
with  every  hundred  pounds  of  iron  in  good  furnaces. 
Small  furnaces,  and  those  which  are  driven  slowly, 
use  more  fuel,  and  the  amount  often  rises  to  twenty 
pounds  of  fuel  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  iron. 
Along  with  the  charges  of  coal  and  iron,  a  little 
limestone,  broken  into  two-inch  pieces,  or  oyster 
shells,  is  charged,  to  about  two,  or  three,  and  often 
five  per  cent,  to  the  weight  of  the  iron.  Too 
much  limestone,  as  well  as  too  little,  causes  the 
iron  to  become  white,  lose  some  of  its  carbon,  and 
in  most  cases,  its  strength  and  softness.  The 
furnace  should  be  kept  full  while  in  blast,  or  at 
least  so  long  as  iron  is  melted,  by  alternate  charges 
of  iron  and  coal.  Coal  is  generally  put  on  first, 
then  iron,  and  on  the  top  of  these  the  limestone  is 
laid.  When  all  the  iron  needed  for  the  occasion  is 
melted,  the  charges  are  stopped.  The  blast,  how- 
ever, is  urged  on,  until  all  the  iron  has  been  tapped. 
The  sand  bottom  of  the  furnace  is  made  sloping, 
so  as  to  admit  of  discharging  the  last  portions 
of  the  iron.  A  well-constructed  cupola  furnace  will 
melt  one  ton  of  iron  every  hour;  some  furnaces  as 
much  as  three  tons  per  hour;  small  ones,  frequently 
not  more  than  half  a  ton  in  an  hour.  Most  fur- 
uaces  are  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top ;  they 


FOUNDING.  »      209 

tnerefore  work  hotter  than  those  with  parallel  sides, 
and  also  have  the  advantage  of  lasting  longer,  as 
the  melted  iron,  which  is  apt  to  cut  the  fire-brick, 
does  not  run  down  along  the  brick.  The  taper  to 
be  given  to  a  lining  is  dependent  upon  the  size  of 
the  cupola ;  a  large  furnace  will  bear  more  taper 
than  a  narrow,  or  small  furnace.  If  different  kinds 
of  iron  are  to  be  melted  in  the  same  heat,  a  thick 
layer  of  fuel  is  interposed  between  the  various 
qualities,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  extraction  of  all  the 
iron  which  was  first  charged  before  the  second  ap- 
pears at  the  bottom.  In  such  cases,  it  is  advisable 
to  melt  the  gray  iron,  or  that  iron  which  is  to  make 
soft  castings  first,  and  the  white  or  hard  iron  last. 
When  as  much  iron  is  melted  as  is  needed  for  filling 
one  or  more  moulds,  the  clay  plug  of  the  tap-hole  is 
pierced  by  a  sharp,  steel-pointed  bar,  and  the  metal 
run  into  pots,  which  are  carried  by  hand  or  with  a 
crane,  or  it  is  run  directly  into  the  mould  by  means  of 
gutters  moulded  in  the  sand  of  the  floor.  Between 
each  successive  tapping  of  the  iron,  the  tap-hole  is 
closed,  and  more  iron  gathered.  Where  more  iron 
than  the  furnace  will  hold  is  required  for  one  cast,  a 
portion  of  it  is  tapped  into  a  large  pot,  which  pro- 
cess may  be  carried  so  far,  as  to  make  castings  of 
five  or  more  tons  from  a  small  furnace. 
18* 


210   MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

Pots  in  which  iron  is  carried  from  the  furnaces  to 
the  moulds  are  represented  in  figures  38  and  39. 

Fig.  38. 


Fig.  39. 


The  first  is  generally  of  a  capacity  sufficient  to  hold 
from  two  to  three  hundred  pounds  of  melted  iron. 
It  can  be  carried  by  three  or  more  men ;  the  forked 
part  of  the  handle  is  used  for  tipping  the  pot,  so  as 
to  pour  the  iron  gradually  into  the  mould.  Figure 
39  is  designed  to  be  raised  by  means  of  a  crane,  and 
emptied  therefrom  into  the  mould.  The  cupola  or 
reverberatory  at  which  such  a  pot  is  used,  as  well  as 
the  mould,  should  be  within  the  sweep  of  the  crane. 
Pots  of  this  description  are  of  various  sizes ;  we 


FOUNDING.  211 

find  some  which  will  hold  five  hundred  pounds,  and 
others  will  hold  two  tons  and  more.  The  swivela 
on  such  pots  are  generally  strong,  and  their  ends 
square,  with  a  key^-hole  to  fasten  one  or  two  forks 
to  them,  for  the  purpose  of  tilting  the  pot  and  pour- 
ing its  contents  into  the  mould.  These  pots  are 
always  made  of  boiler-plate,  as  it  would  be  dan- 
gerous to  make  them  of  cast-iron.  Before  each 
cast,  the  pots  receive  a  wash  of  strong  clay-water, 
to  prevent  corrosion  by  the  hot  iron. 

The  foregoing  are  the  most  important  means  of 
melting  metal ;  in  the  cupola,  no  metal  but  iron  is 
melted.  Copper,  bronze,  brass,  German-silver,  sil- 
ver, gold,  and  the  alloys  of  the.se  metals,  are  either 
melted  in  crucibles,  or,  if  large  quantities  are  to  bo 
smelted,  in  the  reverberatory  furnace.  The  fur 
naces,  crucibles,  and  other  tools,  are  essentially  the 
same  for  other  metals  as  those  described  for  melting 
iron.  Slight  variations  in  the  form  of  melting  appa- 
ratus are  often  advised,  but  there  is  no  essential 
difference,  no  alteration  in  the  principle.  Fusible 
rnetals,  such  as  lead,  tin,  zinc,  antimony,  and  the 
alloys  of  those  metals,  may  be  melted  in  iron  pots, 
kettles,  crucibles,  and  iron  ladles,  and  also  in  clay 
crucibles.  The  heat  required  to  melt  these  metals  is 
not  so  high  as  the  melting-heat  of  iron. 


212    MOULDER'S  AND  PLUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

BLAST-MACHINES. 

Formerly,  cylinder  blast-machines  were  used  to 
supply  the  cupola  with  air  for  combustion,  and  in 
some  few  establishments  they  are  still  retained  for 
fanning  the  furnaces ;  the  impression  being,  that 
iron  melted  by  cylinder  blast  is  stronger  and  less 
injured  than  that  melted  by  other  blast-machines 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  cylinder  blast  is  pre- 
ferable to  the  blast  generated  in  machines  where 
water  is  in  contact  with  the  compressed  air ;  in  all 
other  respects  the  impression  is  erroneous,  as  there  is 
evidence  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  most  sceptical.  In 
the  present  case,  only,  a  blast  is  required  for  the 
cupola;  in  other  furnaces  it  is  not  needed.  To 
nourish  a  cupola,  no  better  or  more  perfect  blast 
can  be  generated  than  that  made  by  the  fan, 
or  the  centrifugal  blast-machine.  Practice  has 
proved  that  the  fan  makes  the  cheapest  blast,  and 
also  saves  fuel ;  it  has  no  deteriorating  influence 
upon  the  iron,  provided  the  quantity  of  blast  sent 
into  the  furnace  is  sufficient  to  generate  a  strong 
heat.  In  figures  40  and  41,  a  common  fan  is 
represented.  It  is  an  iron  box,  consisting  of 
two  cast-iron  sides,  with  a  rim  of  sheet-iron  be- 
tween them.  In  the  centre  of  the  box  is  a  hori- 


FOUNDING.  213 

zontal  shaft,  with  four  fans  or  wings,  which  move 
with  great  rapidity,  drawing  in  the  air  at  the  centres 
on  each  side,  and  driving  it  towards  the  periphery, 

i.  Fig.  41. 


thus  imparting  to  the  particles  of  air  a  momentum, 
by  the  centrifugal  motion,  which  presses  them  against 
the  circumference,  and  if  there  is  any  opening  a-t 
the  circumference,  the  air  will  escape  with  a  speed 
proportionate  to  that  pressure.  These  fans  have 
been  constructed  of  various  sizes  and  forms ;  their 
depth  is  varied  according  to  the  quantity  of  air  to 
be  derived  from  them ;  the  wings  are  from  four  to 
twenty-four  inches  wide  ;  eight  inches  wide  is  suffi- 
cient to  supply  a  well-sized  cupola.  The  diameter  is 
as  various  as  the  width  of  the  fan,  but  it  is  gene- 
rally admitted  that  three  feet  in  diameter  is  the 
most  profitable  and  practical  size.  The  wings  are 
often  placed  in  the  direction  of  the  diameter, 
as  is  shown  in  the  engraving;  sometimes  in  an 


214  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
inclined  position  to  the  diameter;  and  also  have  been 
curved  in  a  spiral  line,  but  without  any  appreciable 
difference  in  effect.  The  latter  form  of  the  wings 
does  not  cause  as  much  noise  as  the  radial  vanes. 
The  chief  object  in  constructing  a  fan  is  to  form  it  so  as 
to  do  the  greatest  amount  of  work.  The  case  should 
be  strong  and  solid,  and  for  these  reasons  wood  is 
not  the  proper  material  for  its  construction.  The 
shaft  and  vanes  are  to  be  as  light  as  possible ;  the 
shaft,  of  steel,  hardened  at  both  ends,  where  it  runs 
in  brass,  steel,  or  cast-iron  pans.  The  vanes  of  the 
fan  are  to  be  of  thin  sheet-iron  or  sheet-copper,  and 
the  arms  to  them  of  wrought  iron.  One  of  the  most 
important  conditions  of  a  fan,  is  the  equal  weight, 
and  the  equal  distance  from  each  other  of  the  vanes ; 
and  each  arm  supporting  them  is  to  be  exactly 
of  the  same  weight  as  the  other.  If  these  condi- 
tions are  not  complied  with,  the  machine  will  shake, 
and  soon  be  out  of  order.  A  mere  adjustment  of 
the  axis,  and  the  vanes  attached  to  it,  is  not  suffi- 
cient ;  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  for  a  good  machine, 
that  all  the  parts  around  the  shaft  should  be  of  an 
equal  thickness.  In  a  fan  of  three  feet  diameter,  the 
centre  openings  are  generally  one  foot;  in  larger 
fans  the  openings  are  larger.  Very  large  apertures 
Kill  not  answer;  the  air  is  conducted  too  quickly  to 


FOUNDING.  215 

the  periphery  of  the  vanes,  and  there  is  not  sufficient 
time  to  impart  to  the  particles  the  momentum 
requisite  to  produce  a  good  effect. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  constructing  a  fan  is,  in  the 
close  fitting  of  the  vanes  to  the  sides  of  the  case. 
The  latter  cannot  be  made  very  straight  without 
incurring  much  labour,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
would  be  very  difficult  to  adjust  the  axle  so  perfectly 
in  the  centre  of  the  case  as  not  to  touch  it,  which, 
considering  the  great  speed  of  the  vanes,  is  almost 
impossible.  It  is  also  easily  perceived  that  the  loss 
in  pressure  is  in  the  space  between  the  vanes  and 
the  cast-iron  sides  of  the  case.  To  diminish  this  loss, 
fans  are  now  constructed  in  which  the  vanes  are 
covered  on  both  sides  with  two  concentric  plane 
rings,  so  that  the  axle  with  the  vanes,  forms  a  hollow 
drum,  open  in  the  centre  and  at  the  periphery. 
The  vanes  are  fastened  to  these  two  bottoms  or 
rings,  and  also  to  the  arms,  radiating  from  the 
centre.  The  two  bottoms  move  round  with  the  axis, 
and  parallel  with,  and  close  to  the  sides  of  the 
case.  In  the  centre,  where  the  air  is  drawn  in,  the 
oase  is  turned  perfectly  round,  as  well  as  the  rim  on 
the  centre  of  ,.the  bottoms ;  both  fit  closely,  but  do 
not  touch  each  other.  Where  these  join  there  is 
but  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  diameter,  which  may 


216  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
be  kept  tighter  than  the  larger  surface  and  circum- 
ference at  the  vanes.-  By  these  means  the  loss  iu 
pressure  is  greatly  diminished,  and  it  is  an  estab- 
lished fact  that  these  fans  require  less  power,  and 
make  stronger  blast  than  fans  of  other  descriptions. 
Fans  of  this  construction  are  now  most  commonly 
used.  The  bottoms  and  vanes  in  these  fans  are  made 
of  thin  sheet  copper.  The  effect  of  a  fan  does  not 
depend  so  much  upon  its  size,  as  upon  its  speed  and 
the  size  of  the  nozzle.  It  does  not  require  large 
vanes  to  make  strong  blast ;  it  is  sufficient  if 
the  surface  of  each  is  one-and-a-half  times  the  area 
of  the  nozzle,  or,  if  there  are  more  nozzles  than 
one,  of  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  all  the  nozzles. 
More  than  four  vanes  in  one  fan  are  useless.  In 
the  conducting-pipes  from  the  fan  to  the  furnace, 
there  is  to  be  a  throttle- valve  at  each  nozzle  to  shut 
off  the  blast  at  each  without  disturbing  the  others. 
The  speed  of  the  axle  of  a  fan  is  from  seven 
to  twelve  hundred  revolutions  per  minute.  It  is 
driven  by  a  belt  and  pulley  on  one  side  of  its 
axle.  To  melt  a  ton  of  iron  in  an  hour's  time, 
requires  about  seven  hundred  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
minute,  or,  by  a  three-foot  fan,  eighteen  hundred 
revolutions,  and  two  three-inch  nozzles.  Six  horses 


FOUNDING.  217 

power  is  needed  to  drive  a  fan  with  the  above  speed 
and  size  of  nozzles. 

Hot  blast  has  been  tried  in  various  instances,  but 
not  with  such  results  as  to  induce  a  continuance  of 
it.  In  this  instance,  hot  blast  has  no  other  advan- 
tage than  a  small  saving  of  fuel,  and  as  the  fuel 
consumed  is  not  to  be  considered  expensive,  the 
getting  up  of  the  apparatus,  repair,  and  disturb- 
ances caused  by  it,  amount  to  more  than  the  gain 
of  fuel. 

Drying  Stoves  are  simply  brick  chambers,  one  side 
of  which  is  entirely  open.  Three  sides  are  formed  by 
a  nine  or  twelve-inch  brick  wall.  In  one  of  the  sidea 
is  ^a  fire-place,  which  can  be  supplied  with  fuel  from 
the  outside  of  the  stove,  and  may  be  shut  by  a  close- 
fitting  iron  door.  In  the  opposite  side  of  the  fire- 
place is  a  flue  which  leads  to  a  chimney ;  this  flue 
is  also  low  down,  almost  below  the  ground.  The 
three  sides  are  covered  by  a  brick  arch.  The  fourth 
side  is  provided  with  iron  doors,  which  open  to  both 
sides,  and  leave  the  whole  fourth  side  open  to  any 
piece  of  moulding  which  may  be  put  in.  Iron 
shelves  are  generally  put  up  along  the  walls  towards 
the  roof,  for  drying  small  cores  and  boxes  on.  A 
railroad,  which  is  within  the  sweep  of  a  crane,  leads 

into  the  stove,  and  any  heavy  mould  which  is  to  by 
19 


218  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIIE. 
dried  may  be  laid  upon  a  car  running  on  this  track, 
and  both  car  and  mould  are  shoved  into  the  stove, 
the  doors  closed,  and  fire  put  in  the  furnace.  The 
size  of  a  drying-stove  is  varied  according  to  the  size 
of  the  castings  commonly  made  in  a  foundry.  A 
stove  of  twelve  feet  in  all  directions,  and  seven  feet 
high,  is  a  good-sized  stove.  Foundries  which  make 
large  castings  have  to  be  provided  with  drying-stoves 
of  the  proper  size.  There  are  frequently  more  than 
one  drying-stove  in  a  foundry,  often  as  many  as  five 
or  six,  small  and  large.  If  there  is  no  occasion  for 
using  a  large  stove,  a  small  one  is  selected,  because 
it  works  faster,  and  with  less  fuel.  In  figure  43  a 
drying-stove  is  represented. 

Fig.  42. 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 

Cleansing  of  eastings. — When  the  metal  of  a  case 
is  so  far  cooled  as  to  adhere  together,  and  strong 
enough  to  bear  removal,  the  moulds  are  taken  apart 


FOUNDING.  219 

and  the  sand  or  loam  is  removed  from  the  casting. 
Small  castings  require  but  a  few  minutes  to  cool, 
while  heavier  casts  take  hours  and  days.  A  massive 
casting,  such  as  a  forge-hammer  of  five  tons  weight, 
will  take  twenty-four  hours  cooling,  in  a  green,  and 
forty-eight  hours  in  a  dry  mould.  A  bed-plate  for 
the  engine  of  one  of  the  New  York  line  of  Atlantic 
steamers,  weighing  thirty-five  tons,  took  a  week  for 
cooling  and  the  removal  from  its  mould.  Heavy 
castings  are  chained  to  a  crane  arid  hoisted  by  it. 
Very  heavy  castings  require  the  united  strength  of 
two  and  more  cranes.  Small  castings  are  removed 
from  their  moulds  by  tongs ;  one,  two,  or  more  per- 
sons taking  hold  of  it  at  the  same  time,  carry  it  to 
a  place  designed  for  the  reception  of  such  hot  cast- 
ings. The  excrescences  which  may  happen  to  have 
been  formed  in  the  partings  or  core-joints  are  broken 
off  as  soon  as  the  cast  is  removed  to  the  general 
deposit  of  hot  castings.  The  gates  are,  at  the  same 
time,  broken  off  by  the  moulder ;  it  requires  some 
degree  of  skill  to  break  a  gate  off  smoth.  Gates 
and  accidental  excrescences  which  cannot  be  removed 
in  the  foundry,  are  'chiselled  and  chipped  off  in  the 
yard  or  in  the  cleansing-shop.  Heavy  cores,  and 
particularly  hard  cores,  an>  removed  in  the  foundry 
before  the  casting  is  entirely  cold. 


220    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

Time  of  casting. — The  casting  in  iron  foundries 
is  generally  performed  in  the  afternoon  after  three 
o'clock,  so  as  to  make  it  the  last  business  of  the  day. 
This  time  is  chiefly  selected  to  escape  the  heat  of  the 
hot  sand  after  casting,  which  will  then  cool  during 
the  night.  After  casting,  the  castings  are  removed, 
and  the  moulding-boxes  piled  in  a  corner  of  the 
building,  so  as  to  be  handy  for  the  next  day's  work ; 
the  sand,  after  receiving  some  water,  is  shovelled 
over,  mixed,  and  thrown  in  heaps,  where  it  remains 
during  the  night.  If  the  latter  work  has  been  pro- 
perly performed,  the  sand  will  be  of  a  proper  and 
uniform  dampness  the  next  morning.  Each  moulder 
takes  charge  of  his  own  sand,  and  but  little  practice 
is  required  to  learn  the  proper  amount  of  water 
to  be  used  in  damping  the  sand. 

The  cleansing  of  castings  is  a  simple  operation  in 
an  iron  foundry  where  common  castings  are  made : 
any  workman  is  fit  to  trim  a  coarse  casting,  or 
scour  it.  The  first  is  done  by  means  of  chisela 
or  sharp  hammers ;  the  latter,  with  dull,  coarse  files, 
which  have  been  used  and  rejected  by  machinists. 
Cast-iron  files  are  also  used  for  the  latter  purpose. 
The  trimming  and  cleansing  of  valuable  castings, 
such  as  statues  or  ornaments  of  art,  is  not  so  easily 
performed.  An  unskilful  workman  could  undo  almo-i 


FOUNDING.  221 

the  whole  casting,  and  all  the  labour  spent  upon  it, 
by  trimming  off  a  channel  or  gate.  This  kind  of 
work  is  done  by  an  artist  skilled  in  the  performance 
of  such  labour;  and,  on  valuable  statues,  it  is  per- 
formed by  the  original  designer  of  the  work,  at  least 
BO  far  as  particular  parts,  such  as  the  face,  or  cha- 
racteristic elements,  are  concerned.  The  trimming 
of  fine  castings  is  an  art  in  itself,  which  requires 
more  explanation  than  our  limited  means  allow  us 
to  give. 

The  expenses  of  moulding  and  casting  are  very 
variable.  Moulding  of  common  articles  of  commerce 
and  machinery  in  iron,  is  done  by  the  ton,  at  prices 
varying  from  two  to  twelve  dollars  per  ton,  and  even 
at  higher  prices.  Dry-sand  moulding  is  paid  higher 
than  moulding  in  green-sand,  and  loam-moulding 
higher  than  either  of  them.  The  moulding  of  brass, 
bronze,  or  other  metals,  for  monuments  of  art,  is  of 
euch  variety,  and  so  different  are  the  expenses, 
that  no  standard  price  can  be  assigned  to  it.  The 
expenses  incurred  in  melting  metal  are  not  very  great, 
— the  loss  in  the  metal  which  is  melted  is  greater  than 
the  labour  and  fuel  in  melting  it.  In  the  cupola, 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  fuel  is  consumed  in  melting 
iron,  including  all  the  fuel  used  in  warming  the  fur- 
nace, the  drying  stoves,  and  other  incidental  uses 
19* 


222  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUILE. 
of  fuel.  Besides  fuel,  there  are  two  labourers  it 
the  cupola,  one  smelter,  and  one  filler.  The  rever- 
beratory takes  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred 
pounds  of  fuel  to  each  hundred  pounds  of  iron, 
including  the  heating  of  the  furnace.  Exclusive  of 
warming,  the  reverberatory  •will  take  but  fifty 
pounds  of  fuel.  One  workman  can  do  the  work  at 
the  reverberatory,  but  there  are  generally  two.  The 
melting  of  iron  in  the  crucible  is  the  most  expensive : 
it  consumes  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds  of  coal 
to  one  hundred  pounds  of  iron.  The  greatest  ex- 
penses are,  however,  in  the  crucibles :  a  good  cru- 
cible, well-managed,  will  not  last  more  than  twelve 
heats,  and  if  each  heat  is  fifty  pounds,  it  will  melt 
six  hundred  pounds  of  iron.  A  crucible  of  this  kind 
will  cost  fifty  cents ;  but  very  few  crucibles  will  melt 
six  hundred  pounds,  and,  on  an  average,  not  more 
than  three  hundred  pounds  can  be  calculated  upon. 
The  loss  in  iron  is  invariably  from  five  to  six  per 
cent,  in  every  case  of  the  different  forms  of  melt- 
ing ;  the  reverberatory  furnace  consuming  most 
iron.  Each  casting  always  requires  more  metal  than 
it  will  finally  contain ;  this  surplus  iron,  consisting  of 
gates,  channels,  arid  false  seams,  increases  the  above 
loss ;  and  as  small  castings  make  more  scrap  iron 
than  large  ones,  it  is  obvious  that  the  actual  loss 


FOUNDING.  223 

will  be  larger  on  small  casts  than  on  large  ones. 
Machine  castings  make,  on  an  average,  thirty-three 
per  cent,  of  refuse  or  scrap  in  a  well-conducted 
foundry.  Commercial  articles  twenty-five  per  cent., 
and  large  castings  less  ;  very  small  articles  fre- 
quently make  more  scrap  than  ware.  The  remelt- 
ing  of  these  scraps  costs  fuel,  and  causes  a  waste  of 
metal,  which  increases  the  expense  of  melting. 

Other  metals  than  iron  are  generally  less  expen- 
sive in  melting,  being  more  fusible ;  and,  as  far  as 
copper  is  concerned,  there  is  but  little  waste  if  the 
copper  is  pure.  Bronze  will  waste  a  little ;  the  waste 
in  volatile  metals,  as  tin  and  zinc,  can  be  prevented 
in  some  measure,  if  the  surface  of  the  melted  metal  id 
Covered  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  potash  and 
soda,  mixed  with  some  charcoal  powder.  To  melt  and 
make  bronze  in  the  reverberatory,  the  copper  is 
melted  first,  and  if  there  is  any  bronze  on  hand,  in 
scraps  or  other  forms,  it  is  added  as  soon  as  the 
copper  is  melted  down;  after  this,  the  tin  is  laid 
near  the  liquid  copper,  upon  the  hearth,  and  if  any 
zinc  or  antimony  is  to  be  used,  it  is  added  last. 
Before  casting  bronze,  it  is  to  be  well  stirred  by 
previously  heated  iron  bars.  The  amount  of  potash 
and  soda  used  to  protect  the  metal,  is  two  pounds  to 
one  ton  of  metal ;  it  is  added  when  all  the  metals 


224    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

are  melted  and  a  white  scum  is  visible  on  the  surface  ol 
the  metal.  Bronze  metal  designed  for  strong  castings, 
particularly  bells,  ought  to  be  exposed  to  the  fire  in  a 
fluid  state  for  at  least  eight  or  ten  hours ;  this  will  give  it 
a  more  homogeneous  texture  and  less  crystallization. 
If  any  zinc  is  to  be  added  to  such  an  alloy,  it  ia 
advisable  to  add  it  in  the  form  of  brass,  calculating, 
of  course,  the  quantity  of  copper  it  contains.  The 
relative  quantity  of  the  metals  forming  the  alloy 
can  be  calculated  and  mixed  according  to  this 
arrangement ;  but  the  melting  operation  has  an  influ- 
ence upon  the  strength  of  the  metal.  Tin  or  zinc 
may  be  evaporated,  and  the  alloy  would  not  be 
of  the  quality  intended;  the  founder,  therefore, 
takes  proofs  before  casting,  and  if  they  are  not 
satisfactory,  either  copper  or  tin  is  added  to  the 
melted  mass.  It  requires  some  experience  to  judge 
of  the  quality  of  an  alloy  by  appearances.  Proof 
is  taken  by  a  small  iron  ladle,  the  little  metal  in  it 
is  broken  after  it  has  cooled,  and  the  form  of  crys- 
tallization and  the  tenacity  of  the  metal  is  decisive 
of  the  quality  of  the  composition. 

Lead,  tin,  and  antimony  may  be  melted  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace;  brass,  however,  is  to  be 
melted  in  crucibles.  Brass  is  sometimes  made  by 
melting  copper,  and  adding,  after  it  is  melted,  as 


FOUNDING.  225 

much  zinc  as  is  needed  to  form  the  alloy.  A  cheaper 
method  is  to  melt  a  mixture  of  copper  scraps  and 
zinc  ore  together  with  some  charcoal  powder;  or, 
melt  both  copper  and  zinc  ore  together  with  carbon. 
In  both  cases,  however,  the  brass  is  to  be  remelted, 
because  the  first  smelting  does  not  produce  strong 
and  pure  brass. 


APPENDIX. 

RECEIPTS  AND  TABLES, 

Alloys  of  Iron. — All  admixtures  added  to  iron 
make  it  more  fusible  than  it  originally  is ;  these  may 
be  metals  or  metalloids. 

Sulphur  causes  iron  to  be  more  fusible  if  melted  toge- 
ther, but  this  mixture  is  more  liable  to  corrosion  than 
pure  iron.  A  little  sulphur  does  not  injure  cast  iron, 
but  more  than  one  per  cent,  makes  it  brittle  when 
cold.  If  there  is  any  sulphur  in  iron  when  hot,  it 
causes  the  iron  to  be  brittle. 

Carbon  is  contained  in  all  cast  iron  from  two  to 
six  per  cent. ;  it  makes  the  iron  fusible  ;  if  the  amount 
contained  is  too  large,  it  renders  it  brittle.  A  little 
carbon  makes  cast  iron  brittle  and  hard.  Hard  cast 
iron  assumes  as  beautiful  a  polish  as  hardened  steel. 

Phosphorus  makes  iron  brittle  when  cold.  It 
imparts  a  brilliancy  and  white  colour  to  iron  more 
perfectly  than  any  other  matter.  Phosphorus  makes 
iron  very  hard,  but  renders  it  liable  to  corrosion  ; 
one-half  or  one  per  cent,  causes  a  great  alteration  in 

the  quality  of  iron. 

(226) 


RECEIPTS   AND   TABLES.  227 

Silicon  is  a  constant  companion  of  cast  iron ;  hot- 
blast  iron  contains  more  of  it  than  cold-blast ;  it  also 
contains  more  sulphur  and  phosphorus  if  any  is  pre- 
sent in  the  ore  or  coal.  Silicon  makes  iron  brittle 
and  hard,  and  has  a  similar  effect  on  it  as  phos- 
phorus. 

Arsenic  imparts  a  fine  white  colour  to  iron,  but 
makes  it  brittle. 

Chromium  causes  iron  to  be  as  hard  as  diamond, 
but  it  is  difficult  to  make  this  combination. 

Grold  combines  very  readily  with  iron ;  it  serves  as 
a  solder  for  small  iron  castings,  as  breast-pins  and 
similar  articles. 

Silver  does  not  unite  well  with  iron,  but  a  little 
may  be  alloyed  with  it;  it  causes  iron  to  be  very  hard 
and  brittle.  The  alloy  is  very  liable  to  corrosion. 

Copper,  if  alloyed  with  iron,  causes  it  to  be  brittle 
when  hot,  but  increases  its  strength  considerably 
when  cold,  if  the  amount  of  copper  is  not  more  than 
one-fourth  of  1  per  cent. ;  more  copper  than  this 
causes  cold-short. 

Tin,  with  iron,  makes  a  hard,  but  beautiful  alloy, 
which,  if  nearly  half-and-half,  assumes  a  fine  white 
colour,  with  the  hardness  and  lustre  of  steel. 

Lead  combines  with  iron,  but,  like  silver,  in  a  small 
proportion;  it  causes  iron  to  be  soft  and  tough. 


228     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

Alloys  of  iron  are  very  little  in  use  at  present, 
but  we  call  attention  to  such  alloys,  because  the  easy 
method  by  which,  at  present,  iron  is  gilded,  silvered, 
or  coated  with  other  metals,  and  also  the  covering 
of  iron  with  glass,  enamel,  and  varnish,  may,  and 
undoubtedly  will  lead  to  the  use  of  iron  alloys  with 
greater  advantage  than  the  common  cast  iron  is 
used. 

Alloys  of  Precious  Metals. — There  are  but  few 
which  claim  our  attention.  The  gold  coin  of  the 
United  States  is  composed  of  90  parts  of  gold,  2.5 
silver,  and  7.5  copper:  75  parts  of  gold,  25  of  cop 
per,  and  often  a  little  silver,  is  the  composition  for 
most  trinkets;  66.6  gold,  16.7  silver,  and  16.7 
copper,  forms  the  solder  for  gold  and  iron.  Fine 
silver  plate  and  medals  are  generally  composed  of 
95  parts  silver  and  5  copper.  Silver  solder  is  66.6 
silver,  30.4  copper,  and  3.4  brass. 

Alloys  of  Copper  are  the  most  numerous  and  use- 
ful. Bronze,  or  bell-metal,  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  these  alloys. 

72  parts  copper,  26J  parts  tin,  and  1£  parts  of 
iron  is  said  to  be  a  superior  bell-metal.  Iron,  tin, 
and  copper  do  not  unite  well  if  each  is  added  sepa- 
rately to  the  other,  but  if  tin-plate  scraps  are  melted 
in  a  crucible  together  with  tin,  and  then  this  tin 


RECEIPTS   AND   TABLES.  229 

and  iron  alloy  added  to  the  melted  copper,  it  will 
unite  readily. 

Common  Bell-metal  consists  of  100  parts  copper 
and  30  or  40  tin ;  it  is  more  brittle  and  of  not  so 
good  a  tone  as  the  other.  Another  receipt  prescribes 
78  parts  of  copper  and  22  of  tin  as  a  first  rate  bell- 
metal.  Another  highly  recommended  composition 
is  80  copper,  10.1  tin,  5.6  zinc,  and  4.3  lead.  The 
latter  composition  is  of  a  good  sonorous  sound,  eveu 
if  the  mould  has  not  been  quite  dry.  The  silver  bell 
of  Rouen,  France,  consists  of  80  copper,  10  tin,  6 
zinc,  4  lead.  Too  much  tin  causes  the  composition 
t.o  be  very  brittle.  Some  bell-founders  recommend 
the  addition  of  a  small  portion  of  silver  to  the  com- 
position, but  it  appears  there  is  no  particular  necessity 
for  it. 

Bronze  of  great  tenacity  is  composed  of  9,  10,  or 
11  parts  of  copper  to  1  of  tin.  If  this  alloy  is  cast 
in  large  masses,  it  has  the  peculiarity  of  separating 
into  parts  which  contain  more  or  less  tin  or  cop- 
per. The  tin  is  generally  found  on  the  higher 
parts  of  the  cast,  the  copper  predominating  in 
the  lower  parts.  This  composition,  besides  being 
strong,  is  very  hard,  and  resists  abrasion  very  effec- 
tually; it  also  is  very  little  acted  upon  by  the  atmo- 
iphero.  The  ancients  used  to  make  their  weapons 
20 


230  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUID* 
and  edged  tools  of  a  similar  composition, — to  which, 
however,  a  little  phosphorus  appears  to  have  been 
added, — before  the  invention  of  steel.  If  bronze  is 
suddenly  cooled,  by  heating  and  plunging  it  in  cold 
water,  it  becomes  less  dense  and  hard,  and  increases 
its  malleability ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  in  the  same 
degree  with  all  compositions,  but  the  tone  of  the 
metal  is  decidedly  impaired,  and  bells  ought  never 
to  be  cast  in  damp  moulds.  Bronze  made  of  the  lasi 
composition  is  improved  by  being  tempered,  while 
the  tenacity  of  bell-metal,  by  the  same  process,  is 
reduced  to  one-third  of  its  original  strength.  The 
alloy  of  80  copper  and  20  tin  bears  tempering  best, 
and  increases  in  strength.  The  gongs  or  cymbals, 
and  tamtams  of  the  Chinese,  are  composed  of  80 
copper  and  20  tin.  To  give  these  musical  instruments 
their  sonorous  property,  they  are  plunged  in  cold 
water  after  being  cast ;  a  reheating  to  ignition,  how- 
ever, is  to  precede  the  refrigeration.  After  thi? 
latter  process,  which  deprives  the  metal  of  almost  all 
its  sound,  it  is  tempered,  and  very  slowly  cooled,  which 
imparts  to  it  the  capacity  of  emitting  that  peculiarly 
powerful  sound. 

Bronze  for  Statues  is  of  a  great  variety  of  compo- 
sition. We  also  find  alloys  for  this  purpose  com 
posed  like  bell-metal,  and  also  of  almost  pure  copper 


RECEIPTS   AND   TABLES.  231 

Modern  statues  are  composed  of  a  composition  of  80 
copper  and  20  tin.  The  present  state  of  the  art  of 
making  valuable  bronze  castings  is,  however,  so  im- 
perfect, that  our  age  cannot  be  considered  competent  to 
give  a  standard  of  metal  compositions  for  that  purpose. 
The  French  artists,  in  the  first  part  of  this  century, 
were  so  ignorant  in  this  peculiar  art,  that  some  parts 
of  the  Vendome  column  are  an  alloy  of  94  copper 
and  6  tin,  while  other  parts  contained  but  £  of  alloy 
to  99*  of  copper.  These  defects  caused  bad  cast- 
ings, so  that  the  chisellers  had  to  cut  off  seventy  tons 
of  protuberances  on  this  one  monument.  At  the 
time  of  Louis  XIV.,  a  period  when  the  art  of 
casting  statues  was  more  cultivated  in  France, 
statues  were  cast  of  an  alloy  consisting  of  91.3  cop- 
per, 1  to  2  tin,  5  to  6  zinc,  and  1  to  1.5  lead.  The 
statue  of  Louis  XV.  is  cast  of  copper  82.4,  zinc  10.3, 
tin  4,  and  lead  3.2. 

The  Bronze  of  the  Ancient  Greeks  consisted  chiefly 
of  copper  and  tin,  but  was  frequently  alloyed  with 
gold,  silver,  lead,  zinc,  and  arsenic.  The  Greeks 
not  only  made  statues,  tripods,  lamps,  and  other 
articles  of  art  of  bronze,  but  also  their  weapons, 
shields,  coin,  nails,  kitchen  utensils,  and  chirurgical 
instruments.  The  ancients  understood  the  art  of 
hardening  and  tempering  bronze  to  perfection,  so 


232    MOULDER'S  AND.  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
that  the  want  of  steel  was  not  so  severely  felt  as  wo 
may  be  inclined  to  believe  at  the  present  time. 

The  Ancient  Mexicans — Aztecs — understood  the 
art  of  converting  bronze  into  edged  instruments  in  a 
high  degree.  To  small  castings,  an  addition  of  iron, 
in  the  form  of  tin-plate  scraps,  appears  to  be  advan- 
tageous :  large  articles  are  liable  to  crystallize  by  the 
addition  of  that  metal. 

Speculum  Metal  is  generally  composed  of  66  J  cop- 
per and  33f  tin,  it  is  white,  and  has  a  brilliant  lustre, 
and  is  susceptible  of  a  high  polish.  An  ancient 
mirror  was  found  to  consist  of  62  copper,  32  tin, 
and  6  lead.  In  France,  2  parts  of  copper  and  1 
part  of  tin  are  used,  which  are  melted  separately  in 
crucibles,  and  mixed  just  before  casting.  The  addi- 
tion of  a  little  arsenic,  one  or  two  per  cent.,  makes 
the  metal  more  compact,  and  gives  it  a  greater  lustre 
and  hardness,  but  renders  it  liable  to  be  tarnished 
by  the  air.  The  speculum  metal  of  Lord  Rosse's 
large  telescope  is  composed  of  126.4  copper  and  58.9 
tin.  This  alloy  is  of  a  brilliant  white  lustre,  and 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  8.811;  it  is  nearly  as  hard 
as  steel,  and  as  brittle  as  sealing-wax.  The  specu- 
lum is  cast  6  feet  in  diameter  and  5J  inches  thick, 
and  weighs  upwards  of  three  tons.  The  casting  of  this 
mirror  was  an  interesting  process.  After  repeated 


RECEIPTS   AND   TABLES.  233 

failures  and  experiments,  a  mould  was  made  whose 
bottom  consisted  of  a  wrought-iron  ring,  packed  full 
of  hoop-iron  laid  edgeways,  so  close  that  air,  but  no 
metal,  could  escape  through  the  crevices.  This  bot- 
tom was  turned  convex  on  a  turning-lathe,  true  to 
the  concavity  of  the  speculum ;  it  was  then  placed 
upon  a  level  floor  and  enclosed  by  a  sand-dam,  left 
open  from  above.  The  metal  was  melted  in  cast-iron 
crucibles,  because  wrought  iron  or  clay  would  have 
injured  the  alloy.  The  cast  was  carried  while  red 
hot  into  the  annealing  oven,  which  was  previously 
heated  to  a  red  heat,  and  left  there  sixteen  weeks 
to  cool. 

Bronze  for  Medals  generally  contains  least  tin. 
100  copper  with  4.17  tin  has  been  proposed,  but  this 
alloy  is  so  hard,  that  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
cast  the  coin.  Bronze  medals  are,  however,  stamped 
when  composed  of  92  copper  and  8  tin,  a  little  zinc 
being  added  in  a  form  of  brass. 

Bronze  in  imitation  of  Grold,  consists  of  90.5  cop- 
per, 6.5  tin,  and  3  zinc. 

If  bronze  is  to  be  gilt,  it  should  be  of  easy  fusion, 
and  take  perfect  impressions  of  the  mould.  A  combi- 
nation of  copper,  tin,  zinc,  and  lead,  as  previously 
noticed  for  statues,  is  the  best  in  this  case.  An 
alloy  which  is  said  to  possess  the  best  properties  for 
20* 


234    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
being  gilt,  was  composed  of  82.25  copper,  17.48 
zinc,  .23  tin,  .02  lead.     An  alloy  for  gilding  is  to  be 
compact  and  of  close  grain.     It  absorbs  gold  and 
mercury  in  proportion  to  its  porosity. 

Brass  is  a  composition  of  copper  and  zinc ;  2  parts 
of  copper  and  1  of  zinc — or  more  correctly  63| 
copper  and  32.3  zinc — form  common  brass.  Two 
parts  of  brass  and  one  of  zinc  form  hard  solder ;  to 
this  a  little  tin  may  be  added.  If  the  solder  is  to 
be  tough,  as  for  pipes  or  kettles,  which  are  to  be 
drawn  or  beaten,  but  f  of  zinc  are  to  be  added  to  2 
of  brass.  Button-brass  consists  of  8  parts  of  brass 
and  5  of  zinc.  Red-brass  or  tombak  is  made  of  8 
or  10  copper,  and  1  zinc,  or,  as  in  some  German 
works,  of  11  copper  and  2  zinc.  Princes  metal, 
Similor,  Nurnberg  gold,  or  Manheim  gold,  are  differ- 
ent compositions,  varying  between  3  copper  and  1 
zinc,  and  2  copper  and  1  zinc.  These  elements  are 
separately  melted,  and  mixed  together  by  constant 
stirring.  Brass  containing  a  little  lead,  from  one  to 
two  per  cent.,  is  more  easily  turned  than  common 
brass,  but  is  more  brittle.  Brass  which  is  best 
adapted  for  hammering  consists  of  70  copper  and 
30  zinc.  Tempering  and  sudden  refrigeration  has 
a  similar  effect  on  brass  as  upon  bronze ;  the  first 
renders  it  hard  and  more  tenacious,  and  the  latter 


RECEIPTS   AND   TABLES.  235 

soft.  A  little  zinc  makes  a  reddish  brass,  and  im- 
parts a  golden  hue ;  larger  quantities  make  it  a  green- 
ish yellow,  and  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  of  zino 
causes  brass  to  be  of  a  bluish  gray  colour.  Brass 
for  ship  nails  consists  of  10  copper,  8  zinc,  and  1 
iron.  Brass  for  pans  and  steps  to  run  machine 
shafts  in,  is  to  contain  less  zinc  than  common  brass; 
an  addition  of  bronze  to  brass  increases  its  applica- 
bility for  such  purposes.  It  is  said  that  16  copper, 
1  zinc,  and  7  platinum  is  almost  equal  to  gold.  If 
melted  red-brass  is  stirred  with  an  iron  or  steel 
rod,  so  as  to  impart  a  little  iron  to  it,  its  strength  is 
sensibly  augmented.  The  variety  of  brass  composi- 
tions is  so  numerous,  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  note 
all  the  known  compounds.  In  the  above,  the  most 
useful  alloys  are  enumerated. 

German-silver,  Argentan,  or  Chinese  Packfong, 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  alloys ;  it  nearly  com- 
bines the  durability  of  silver  and  the  utility  of  iron, 
steel,  and  copper.  Common  German-silver  is  com- 
posed of  60  copper,  25  zinc,  and  15  nickel.  A  better 
quality  is  50  copper,  25  zinc,  and  25  nickel.  Chinese 
packfong  consists  of  55  copper,  17  zinc,  23  nickel, 
and  3  iron.  A  highly  sonorous,  tenacious  Argentan, 
which  can  be  hammered  and  rolled,  resembling  sil- 
ver more  than  any  other  compound,  is  composed  of 


236  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE 
10.4  copper,  25.4  zinc,  31.5  nickel,  2.6  iron.  At 
present,  a  fine  argentan,  and  one  the  best  qualified  to 
oe  plated  with  silver  by  the  galvanic  process,  is  made 
of  62  copper,  19  zinc,  13  nickel,  and  4  to  5  cobalt 
and  iron.  This  argentan  is  very  close,  strong,  and 
cheap,  and  may  be  covered  by  one  or  two  per  cent, 
of  silver,  forming  a  good  fine  plate.  A  very  tena- 
cious, ductile,  and  hard  argentan  may  be  made  of 
57.4  copper,  25  zinc,  13  nickel,  and  9  iron.  Thia 
alloy  can  be  substituted  for  steel  in  many  of  the 
common  uses  of  steel,  particularly  where  corroding 
influences  upon  steel  are  strong,  because  this  alloy 
is  not  affected  by  atmospheric  air.  Electron,  a  fine 
quality  of  argentan,  is  composed  of  8  copper,  4 
nickel,  and  3.5  zinc.  Solder  for  German  silver  is 
made  by  adding  4  parts  of  zinc  to  this  composition, 
then  laminate  and  pound  it  to  a  coarse  powder. 

Before  we  part  with  copper  alloys  it  will  be  proper 
to  allude  to  some  combinations  of  copper  with  other 
matters  which  are  useful  to  know.  Copper  and 
platinum  form  a  yellow  alloy  hardly  distinguishable 
from  gold.  Copper  and  silver  do  not  form  any  dis- 
tinguished amalgam ;  the  addition  of  a  little  arsenic 
to  such  an  alloy  makes  it  whiter  and  more  like  silver. 
A  little  copper  and  antimony  make  a  fine  rose- 
coloured  alloy  ;  if  the  copper  is  increased,  it  assumes 


RECEIPTS   AND   TABLES.  237 

a  darker  hue ;  equal  quantities  make  a  violet  com- 
pound, and  more  copper  increases  the  dark  shade 
This  alloy  is  brittle  in  all  proportions;  90  parts 
of  copper,  5  antimony,  and  5  zinc,  are  used  for 
plumber-blocks,  and  pans  and  steps  for  steel  and 
iron  gudgeons  to  run  in.  Carbon  makes  copper  very 
brittle.  Phosphorus  makes  copper  as  hard  as  steel,  so 
that  it  can  be  used  for  knives  and  edge-tools;  it. 
however,  renders  copper  more  liable  to  corrosion. 
The  appearance  of  this  compound  when  newly 
polished  is  like  pure  copper,  but  it  is  very  soon 
covered  or  tarnished  with  a  greenish-black  covering. 
This  greenish  black  being  the  colour  of  ancient  wea- 
pons, renders  it  probable  that  the  ancients  hardened 
their  copper  or  bronze  tools  by  means  of  phosphorus. 
Copper  and  arsenic  form  a  bright  white  alloy,  which 
is  used  for  candlesticks,  buttons,  dials,  and  similar 
articles,  but  as  this  compound  is  easily  soluble  and 
highly  poisonous,  it  cannot  be  used  where  food  is 
brought  in  contact  with  it.  This  alloy  is  made  by 
melting  copper  scraps  and  white  arsenic — arsenious 
acid — in  a  crucible,  covering  it  with  a  layer  of  com- 
mon salt.  It  has  almost  the  colour  and  density  of 
pure  silver,  but  is  very  liable  to  corrosion. 

Lead  and  its  alloys  are  very  extensively  used;  the 
alloys  are  usually  harder  and  less  tough  than  lead.    A 


238  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
*matt  amount  of  arsenic  is  added  to  the  lead  to  make 
fihot;  arsenic  is  more  fusible  and  more  brittle  than 
lead ;  for  fine  shot,  three  pounds  of  arsenic,  and  for 
coarse  eight  pounds,  to  one  thousand  pounds  of  lead, 
are  generally  used.  To  alloy  lead  with  arsenic, 
nothing  more  is  needed  than  to  melt  white  arsenic 
together  with  metallic  lead ;  half  the  weight  of  the 
arsenic  employed  will  be  absorbed  by  the  lead.  5 
lead  and  1  antimony,  to  which  frequently  a  little 
zinc  and  bismuth  are  added,  forms  type  metal.  A 
good  French  type  metal  is  said  to  consist  of  2  lead, 
1  antimony,  and  1  copper.  Common  type  metal  is 
80  lead  and  20  antimony ;  a  more  fusible  stereotype 
metal  is  77  lead,  15  antimony,  and  8  bismuth.  Some 
stereotype  founders  add  tin  to  the  above,  that  is,  add 
to  lead,  antimony,  and  bismuth,  tin  ;  or  leave  the 
bismuth  out  and  supply  its  place  by  tin.  If  much 
tin  is  used  it  renders  the  metal  rather  soft,  but  fusible 
and  fit  for  fine  impressions.  A  superior  alloy  is  said 
to  consist  of  9  lead,  2  antimony,  and  1  bismuth.  To 
alloy  lead  with  these  metals,  the  lead  is  first  melted, 
and  the  other  metals  added  to  the  fluid  lead.  Fusible 
metal  may  be  compounded  of  various  degrees  of 
fusibility;  31  lead,  19  tin,  and  50  bismuth  may  be 
fused  at  203°.  An  alloy  which  fuses  at  149°,  and 
••vhich  is  used  for  plugging  teeth,  consists  of  28.5 


RECEIPTS  AND   TABLES.  239 

lead,  45.5  bismuth,  17  tin,  and  9  mercury.  8  of 
bismuth,  5  of  lead,  and  3  of  tin,  will  melt  at  the 
boiling  heat  of  water,  or  212°.  Bismuth  makes 
lead  stronger  if  the  amount  of  bismuth  does  not 
exceed  that  of  the  lead ;  two  parts  of  bismuth  and 
three  parts  of  lead  is  said  to  be  ten  times  stronger 
than  lead,  and  as  the  durability  of  bismuth  is  equal 
to  lead,  it  forms  a  good  alloy  for  making  pipes  and 
wire. 

Tin  forms  a  range  of  very  useful  alloys.  Tin 
and  lead  melt  together  in  all  proportions.  Most  of 
the  tin  vessels  which  are  called  pure  tin  are  alloyed 
with  lead.  Soft  solder  is  33  tin  to  67  lead,  and  in 
all  proportions  from  that  to  67  tin  to  33  lead ;  half- 
and-half  is  common  soft  solder.  Plate  pewter  is 
composed  of  89  tin,  2  bismuth,  7  antimony,  and  2 
copper.  Queen's  metal,  of  75  tin,  9  lead,  8  bismuth, 
8  antimony.  Britannia  metal,  of  89  tin,  2  copper,  6 
antimony,  2  brass,  and  1  iron.  Common  pewter,  or 
German  tin,  is  composed  of  4  tin  and  1  lead.  The 
best  plate  pewter  is  100  tin,  8  antimony,  2  bismuth, 
and  2  copper.  Music  metal  is  80  tin  and  20  inti- 
mony.  Spurious  silver  leaf  is  50  tin  and  50  zinc. 
Antifriction  metal  is  a  variable  compound  of  lead, 
antimony,  tin,  and  copper.  Organ  pipes  are  made  of 
a  composition  of  9  tin  and  1  lead ;  these  proportiona 


240  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
are  varied  by  different  artists.  29  tin  and  19  lead 
form  a  fusible  compound,  of  which  imitations  of 
diamonds  and  precious  brilliants  are  made.  To 
make  such  imitations,  a  glass  rod  is  ground  at  one 
end  in  the  form  which  is  to  be  represented,  whether 
a  brilliant  or  rose-diamond.  The  melted  metal  ia 
skimmed  by  a  paper  card,  and  the  ground  facetted 
end  of  the  glass  rod  dipped  in  the  clear  metal ;  on 
withdrawing  the  rod  a  thin  film  of  metal  will  adhere 
to  the  cold  rod,  which,  when  taken  off,  will  show  a 
hollow  capsule  having  the  lustre  of  a  diamond.  We 
find  such  diamonds  at  present  used  to  make  sign- 
boards in  show  windows.  This  metal  forms  excellent 
reflectors,  which  may  easily  be  made  by  dipping  a 
round  bottle  or  the  bottom  of  a  retort  in  the 
metal ;  but  the  metal  is  tarnished  by  anything 
coming  in  contact  with  it.  1  part  tin,  1  lead,  2  bis- 
muth, and  10  mercury  is  very  fusible  ;  with  this  com- 
pound glass  pipes  and  glass  globes  are  coated  with  a 
thin  film,  by  placing  some  of  this  metal  in  the  article 
to  be  coated,  and  allowing  it  to  flow  round,  thus 
giving  it  the  brilliancy  of  silver.  Tin  foil,  if  designed 
for  mirrors,  is  pure  tin,  but  common  tin-foil  is  lead 
and  tin — often  tin,  zinc,  and  lead ;  it  has  so  great  a 
variety  of  composition,  that  no  standard  can  be 
assigned  it.  Tin-foil  is  made  either  by  hammering 


RKCKII'TS    ANU    TABLES.  241 

or  rolling,  but  most  of  it  is  made  by  casting  the  hot 
metal  over  an  inclined  plane,  made  of  a  frame 
covered  with  cotton  or  linen  canvas.  It  requires 
some  skill  to  perform  the  latter  operation. 

Zinc,  alloyed  with  other  metals,  has  already  been 
enumerated.  In  its  pure  state  it  forms  fine  sharp  cast- 
ings, good  for  ornamental  purposes ;  but  as  these 
castings  have  no  strength,  they  are  not  much  used 
for  other  purposes.  A  composition  of  lead  and  zinc 
is  used  for  patterns,  but  with  little  advantage ;  it  is  soft 
and  flexible,  and  the  patterns  soon  lose  their  shape. 

BRONZING. 

When  bronze  metal  has  been  exposed  to  the  atmo- 
spheric air  for  a  long  time,  it  assumes  a  dark  green 
colour.  This  colour,  a  rich  hue,  may  be  imitated  by 
chemical  agencies,  or  by  paint.  Bronze  metal,  after 
being  cleaned,  is  bronzed  by  being  painted  or  immersed 
in  a  solution  of  two  parts  of  verdigris  and  one  part  of 
sal-ammonia,  dissolved  in  vinegar,  boiled  and  filtered, 
and  used  very  dilute.  It  is  left  in  this  solution  or 
brushed  over  until  the  desired  hue  is  obtained.  The 
colour  of  antique  bronze  is  obtained  by  painting  the 
bronze  cast  with  a  solution  of  one  part  of  sal-ammo- 
nia, three  parts  cream  of  tartar,  six  parts  of  common 
salt,  the  whole  dissolved  in  twelve  parts  of  hot 
21 


242  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUJDK. 
water ;  with  this  are  to  be  mixed  eight  parts  of  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  copper.  This  solution  should 
be  laid  on  in  a  damp  place.  The  first  mixture  will 
give  a  more  reddish  dark  green  colour  to  bronze  than 
the  latter.  Different  tints  may  be  imparted  to 
bronze  and  brass,  from  red  to  bright  yellow,  and  from 
dark  to  light  green.  Boiling  bronze  in  muriatic  acid 
will  give  it  a  red  colour ;  and  soaking  it  in  ammonia 
renders  it  whiter  than  it  already  is.  Bronze  painted 
with  a  thin  solution  of  equal  parts  of  sal-ammonia 
and  oxalate  of  potash,  in  a  warm  room,  or  in  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  gives  it  a  fine  green  colour,  parti- 
cularly if  rubbed  with  it.  If  a  dark  blackish  bronze 
colour  is  required,  the  foregoing  solution  is  laid  on 
in  a  room  where  some  liver  of  sulphur — sulphuret  of 
potassium — is  dissolved  in  water,  and  set  out  in  flat 
dishes  to  generate  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which 
will  cause  a  uniform  blackish  brown  colour  on  bronze 
or  brass.  The  foregoing  receipts  answer  for  brass 
as  well  as  bronze.  When  the  desired  colour  is 
obtained,  the  object  is  washed  in  clean  water,  dried, 
and  then  rubbed  with  a  brush  and  wax.  The  bronze 
for  the  latter  operation  is  heated,  but  not  so  much 
so  as  to  burn  the  wax. 

Bronze  colour  is  imparted  to  other  castings  besides 
brass  and  bronze,  by  paint.   Cast  iron  may  be  bronzed 


RECEIPTS   AND    TABLES.  243 

by  dipping  it  in  a  thin  solution  of  sulphate  of  cop- 
per, or  muriate  of  copper,  and  when  sufficiently 
covered  with  copper,  it  is  washed  and  painted  with 
oil  varnish.  All  objects  to  be  bronzed  may,  how- 
ever, be  painted  of  any  colour,  either  a  shade 
of  green,  from  the  faintest  to  an  almost  black 
green,  or  of  a  blue  or  bluish  green.  The  paint 
cover  should  be  coated  with  pure  varnish,  and  when 
that  is  nearly  dry,  a  metallic  powder  is  dusted 
over  it  by  a  dusting-bag,  or  rubbed  on  by  the  fin- 
gers, a  linen  pad,  or  a  paint-brush.  The  metallic 
powder  is  generally  mosaic  gold,  which  is  made  of 
almost  every  shade,  and  is  of  great  beauty ;  or  it 
may  be  copper  in  powder,  gold  leaf,  silver  leaf,  and 
similar  articles ;  dry  paint  of  a  convenient  shade 
may  also  be  used.  The  highest  parts  of  the  articles 
are  generally  bronzed  so  as  to  appear  as  if  rubbed 
and  worn  by  use.  Over  the  whole  of  these,  a  last 
coating  of  spirit  varnish  is  laid  on. 

The  gilding  of  bronze  and  brass  castings  is  per- 
formed, in  the  dry  way,  by  making  the  surface 
perfectly  smooth,  then  brushing  it  over  with  an 
amalgam  of  gold,  and  dissipating  the  mercury  by  heat, 
which  leaves  a  durable  film  of  gold  over  the  surface. 
This  surface  may  be  burnished  or  deadened.  The 
amalgam  is  made  by  heating  one  part  of  gold,  iq 


244  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
thin  laminae,  in  a  crucible,  and  when  it  becomes 
faintly  red,  pour  over  it  eight  parts  of  mercury, 
pour  the  combined  gold  and  mercury  into  cold  water, 
and  squeeze  the  surplus  mercury  out.  The  amalgam 
is  then  enclosed  in  canvas  or  chamois  leather,  and 
some  more  mercury  pressed  out :  the  remainder  will 
contain  one  part  of  gold  to  two  parts  of  mercury. 
This  amalgam  is  rubbed  over  the  objects  to  be 
gilded  :  it  may  be  had  in  its  true  composition  from 
the  gold  mines  of  Virginia,  and  of  the  best  quality 
from  North  Carolina.  It  is  advisable  to  brush  the 
brass  over  with  a  thin  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury 
and  some  free  nitric  acid,  as  this  facilitates  the  ad- 
herence of  the  amalgam.  The  gilt  and  burnished 
articles  may  be  coloured  by  a  simple  process  to  any 
shade  from  a  bright  and  crimson  red  to  a  violet 
and  deep  blue,  by  being  submerged  in  a  bath  of 
caustic  potash  in  which  some  metallic  oxide  is  dis- 
solved, but,  as  a  galvanic  process  is  to  be  applied 
here,  it  is  beyond  our  province  to  describe  it.  There 
are  other  methods  of  gilding  which,  for  the  same 
reason,  must  be  excluded. 

Iron  may  be  gilded  by  brushing  it  over  with  a 
solution  of  gold  in  sulphuric  ether.  The  iron  is  to 
be  bright  and  polished,  and  the  gold  rubbed  on  Iry 
the  burnisher.  This  is  not  very  durable  gilding. 


RECEIPTS    AND   TABLES.  245 

Tinning  of  brass,  bronze,  and  copper,  is  done  by 
washing  the  surface  of  the  cast  with  very  diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  after  which,  wash  in  water,  and  scour 
with  sand.  The  object  is  then  heated  to  the  melt- 
ing point  of  tin,  and  the  tin,  having  been  previously 
melted,  is  rubbed  over  the  surface  by  means  of  a 
damp  rag  or  piece  of  oakum,  first  covered  with 
rosin,  to  protect  the  tin  against  oxydation.  Cast 
iron  must  be  turned  or  filed,  so  as  to  offer  a  clean 
surface,  before  it  can  be  tinned.  A  solution  of 
tin,  as  muriate  of  tin,  mixed  with  an  equal  part 
of  sal-ammonia,  if  brushed  over  the  metal,  will 
highly  facilitate  the  operation  of  tinning.  A  more 
convenient  mode  of  tinning  than  the  above,  is  to 
plunge  the  object  to  be  tinned  in  a  solution  of  tin 
and  caustic  potash,  which  solution  is  to  be  as  hot 
as  it  can  possibly  be  made.  Such  a  solution  of  tin 
is  made  by  dissolving  oxyde  of  tin — putty  of  tin — 
in  potash  ley,  adding  to  the  saturated  solution  some 
metallic  tin,  in  the  form  of  filings  or  shavings  of 
tin.  A  few  minutes  are  sufficient  to  cover  brass  or 
copper  with  tin. 

Zinking  of  copper  or  bronze  may  be  done  by 
exposing  the  objects  to  the  fumes  of  zinc.  On  cop- 
per castings,  it  is  often  desirable  to  have  some  parts 
of  a  golden  or  yellow  hue,  which  may  be  done  by 
21* 


246  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCILET  GUIDE. 
exposing  those  parts  to  the  fumes  of  zinc.  A  verj 
perfect  coating  of  zinc  may  be  obtained  by  placing 
the  objects,  well  cleaned,  in  a  solution  of  chloride 
of  zinc,  in  which  a  surplus  of  metallic  zinc  is  present. 
Chloride  of  zinc  is  made  by  dissolving  zinc  in  muri- 
atic acid,  always  having  so  much  zinc  in  the  acid, 
that  some  of  it  will  remain  undissolved.  Zinc  dis- 
solved in  sal-ammonia  is  as  efficacious  as  the  fore- 
going. 

Glazing  of  metal  castings,  or  coating  with  enamel, 
is  very  little  practised,  and  will  hardly  ever  amount 
to  a  lucrative  operation.  Iron  to  be  coated  with  an 
enamel  is  first  well  cleansed  by  means  of  acid  and 
scouring  with  sai,d.  It  is  then  uniformly  covered 
with  the  enamel,  which  has  been  previously  prepared 
or  melted,  finely  ground,  and  mixed  with  water  for 
the  purpose  of  laying  it  on.  This  operation  is  very 
little  practised,  as  it  is  very  expensive  and  the  pro- 
duct is  not  durable.  It  has  been,  and  still  is  used  for 
covering  the  interior  of  cooking  utensils  to  prevent 
their  cooking  black.  A  better  means  to  accomplish 
this  object  in  a  cheaper  way,  is  the  application  of 
cast  iron,  which  contains  a  little  phosphorus,  and  not 
too  much  carbon,  as  has  been  previously  remarked. 
More  recently,  a  new  invention,  that  of  covering 
iron  with  transparent  glass,  and  also  with  coloured 


RECEIPTS    AND   TABLES.  247 

glass,  has  made  its  appearance  in  England.  Serious 
doubts,  however,  may  be  entertained  as  to  its  ulti- 
mate success.  Iron  coated  with  enamel  or  glass  can 
never  be  brought  to  a  successful  competition  with 
porcelain  either  in  beauty  or  price. 

Blackening  of  iron  casts  is  either  done  with  black- 
lead,  moistened  with  alcohol,  or,  in  many  instances, 
with  spirits  of  turpentine.  This  is  laid  on  by  a  brush, 
and  rubbed  until  the  blackening  is  dry,  and  assumes 
a  metallic  lustre.  This  is  the  blackening  used  for 
stoves.  If  the  object  to  be  blackened  is  a  little  warm, 
the  operation  works  better  and  much  more  quickly. 

Fine  ornamental  castings  are  heated  to  the  blue 
annealing  heat,  and  then  covered  with  black  copal 
varnish,  and  dried  at  the  same  degree  of  heat.  The 
heat  takes  most  of  the  gloss  of  the  varnish  off.  The 
copal  varnish  is  then  blackened  by  an  admixture  of 
finely  rubbed  lamp-black,  or  printers'  ink,  or,  still 
better,  by  finely  ground  pure  bone-black.  Larger 
castings  are  blackened  with  common  black  paint.  A 
rich  lead-colour  may  be  imparted  to  castings  by  an 
oil  paint,  made  of  fine  litharge  gently  heated  in  an 
iron  pan,  and,  when  hot,  some  flour  of  sulphur 
finely  and  uniformly  sprinkled  over  it  under  constant 
stirring.  The  resulting  sulphuret  of  lead  assumes  a 


248    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 
rich    lead-  colour,  which    is    not    altered    by  oil   01 
the  atmosphere. 

Q-rinding  of  cast  iron  is  resorted  to  where  any 
smooth,  polished  surface  is  required.  It  is  done  on 
large,  fast-revolving  sand  or  grind  stones.  Cast  iron 
is  generally  hard  on  its  surface  and  sandy,  so  that  it 
would  require  too  much  labour  to  file  it,  besides  wearing 
out  too  many  files.  Machine  castings  are  planed  or 
turned  by  proper  machinery. 

Malleable  cast  iron,  an  article  now  very  much  in 
use  for  carriage  and  harness  furniture,  and  various 
other  purposes,  is  made  of  the  best  kind  of  No.  2 
charcoal  pig.  Where  the  foundry  scraps  are  of  a 
good  quality  of  iron,  they  are  preferable.  A  good 
article  may  be  made  by  mixing  No.  2  and  No.  3  iron. 
Any  pig  iron  which  makes  good  bar  iron  will  make 
malleable  iron.  Most  of  the  malleable  iron  is  cast 
from  the  cupola,  but  the  crucible  makes  better  cast- 
ings of  the  same  material.  The  cast  articles  are 
tempered  in  an  iron  cylinder,  and  imbedded  in  fine 
fresh  river  sand,  or  finely  pounded  iron  ore,  or  black 
manganese,  or  a  mixture  of  the  whole  of  these  mate- 
rials. An  exposure  of  the  hardest  cast  iron,  if  pure, 
from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  to  the  fire,  will 
render  it  malleable  to  a  certain  degree.  When  tem- 
pered, the  articles  are  put  in  a  revolving  iron  barrel 


RECEIPTS   AND    TABLES.  249 

together  with  some  sand,  to  be  cleaned  and  polished, 
to  a  certain  extent,  by  rubbing  one  against  the 
other.  This  malleable  iron  is  particularly  quali- 
fied for  being  tinned,  or  plated  with  brass  or 
-  silver.  For  the  silvering  of  iron,  a  process  has 
been  lately  recommended  which  appears  to  be  valu- 
able: it  is  performed  by  means  of  galvanism.  The 
iron  article,  well  cleaned  and  freed  of  all  oil  and 
grease,  is  immersed  in  a  solution  of  silver,  and  con- 
nected with  the  zinc  pole  of  a  galvanic  battery;  the 
copper  pole  is  connected  with  a  platinum  plate  placed 
in  the  solution  at  some  distance  from  the  cast  iron. 
The  silver  solution  consists  of  cyanide  of  silver.  It 
is  made  by  putting  cyanide  of  potassium  in  a  well- 
corked  vessel,  together  with  freshly  prepared  chloride 
of  silver;  the  whole  is  then  covered  with  water  and 
violently  shaken.  It  is  advisable  to  use  an  excess  of 
chloride  of  silver,  and  if  a  little  remains  undissolved, 
add  a  few  pieces  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  A  little 
chloride  of  silver  ought  to  remain  after  all  the  cyanide 
is  saturated.  This  solution  is  filtered,  to  render  it 
perfectly  clear,  and  is  then  ready  for  use.  It  is 
said  that  a  few  minutes'  time  is  sufficient  to  cover  a 
large  surface  of  iron  with  silver. 


i}.">0    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 


TABLE  L 
Weight  of  a  lineal  foot  of  cast-iron  pipes  in  pounds. 


1 

Diameter  of  bore  in 
inchei. 

Thickness  of  metal  in  nchn. 

i 

4 

« 

1 

S 

1 

It 

u 

2 

8.8 

12.3 

16.1 

20.3 

1          2i 

10.6 

14.7 

19.2 

23.9 

1          3 

12.4 

17.2 

22.2 

27.6 

33.3 

39.3 

45.6 

„, 

19.6 

25.3 

31.3 

37.6 

44.2 

51.1 

ti 

14.2 

22.1 

28.4 

35.0 

41.9 

49.1 

56.0 

64.4 

4 

16.1 

24.5 

31.4 

38.7 

46.2 

54.0 

62.1 

70.6 

4i 

18.0 

27.0 

34.5 

42.3 

50.5 

58.9 

67.6 

76.7 

5 

19.8 

29.5 

37.6 

46.0 

54.8 

63.8 

73.2 

82.8 

5i 

21.6 

31.9 

40.7 

49.7 

59.1 

68.7 

78.7 

88.8 

6 

23.5 

34.4 

43.7 

53.4 

63.4 

73.4 

84.2 

95.1 

8i 

25.3 

36.8 

46.8 

56.8 

67.7 

78.5 

89.7 

101.2 

7 

27.3 

n 

29.0 

39.1 

49.9 

60.7 

72.0 

83.5 

95.3 

107.4 

8 

30.8 

41.7 

52.9 

64.4 

76.2 

88.4 

100.S 

113.5 

8J 

32.9 

44.4 

56.2 

68.3 

80.8 

93.5 

106.5 

119.9 

9 

34.5 

46.6 

59.1 

71.8 

84.8 

98.2 

111.8 

125.8 

n 

36.3 

49.1 

62.1 

75.5 

89.1 

103.1 

117.4 

131.9 

10 

38.2 

51.5 

65.2 

79.2 

93.4 

108.0 

122.8 

138.1 

lOJ. 

54.0 

68.2 

82.8 

97.7 

112.9 

128'.4 

144.2 

n 

56.4 

71.3 

86.5 

102.0 

117.8 

133.9 

150.3 

in 

58.9 

74.3 

90.1 

106.3 

122.7 

139.4 

156.4 

12 

61.3 

77.4 

93.6 

110.6 

127.6 

145.0 

162.6 

13 

82.7 

101.2 

118.2 

137.4 

154.1 

173.5 

14 

89.3 

108.2 

126.5 

146.2 

165.3 

185.2 

15 

95.2 

115.7 

135.3 

150.2 

176.2 

19S.1 

16 

123.3 

143.1 

166.1 

187.5 

211.3 

17 

130.2 

152.5 

178.5 

198.2 

223.4 

18 

137.0 

161.2 

185.3 

209.1 

235.6 

19 

169.2 

195.7 

222.3 

247.1 

20 

178.1 

205.2 

233!2 

259.0 

N.  B.    The  two  flanges  of  a  pipe  are  considered  equal  to  the  neigh  I 
(f  one  foot  in  length. 


RECEIPTS   AND   TABLES. 


2-51 


TABLE  II. 

Dimensions  of  cylindrical  columns  of  cast  iron  to  snstaiu  a  give? 
load  with  safety. 


Height  in  feet. 


1052   1005  I  959 


N.  B.  If  the  columns  are  hollow,  the  area  to  the  given  diameter  is  to 
be  converted  into  the  ring,  or  the  difference  of  the  outer  and  inner 
diameters  multiplied  by  §,  because  hollow  cast-iron  columns  are 
•tronger  than  solid  ones  in  that  proportion. 


TABLE  III. 

Showing  the  tenacities,  and  resistances  to  compression,  of  various 
simple  metals  and  alloys. 


METALS  AND  ALLOTS. 

Tenacity. 
A  bar  of  one  inch  square 
section,  will  be  torn  uun- 
derby 

Rniitaoce  to  Caiuprnrion. 
One  square   inch  will  be 
crashed  by 

Rniitinre 
TO»°IO-L 

Cast  Iron 
Copper,  Wrought 

15,000  to  30,000 
33,000 

86,000  to  100,000 

9.0 
4.3 

Malleable  Iron 

56,000  to  70,000 

10.0 

Lead 

1824 

1.0 

Steel 

120,000  to  150,000 

200,000  to  250,000 

16  to  19 

Tin 

5000 

\  < 

Zinc 

9000 

Common  Brass 

17,90t 

10,300 

4.6 

Swedish    Copper    6    parts, 
Malacca  Tin  1  part 

64,000 

6.0 

Chili  Copper  6  parts,  Ma- 

lacca Tin  1  part 
Common  Block  Tin  4  parts, 

60,-K* 

I 

Lead  1  part,  Zinc  1  part 

13,OW) 

Common  Block  Tin  3  parts, 

Ix-ad  1  part 
Common  Block  Tin  3  parts, 
Zinc  1  part 
Lead  1  part,  Zinc  1  part 

10,200 

10,000 
4500 

252     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 


TABLE  IV. 

Specific  gravities  of  metals  and  alloys.     Water  1000. 


".2 

•8  -a 

I1 

*M 
"£.= 

si 

METALS   AND   ALLOTS. 

Specific  Gravity. 

1 

P 

ft 

in 

1 

Platinum 

19.500 

1208 

(iold 

19.258 

1.435 

1203 

201C0' 

Mercury 

13.500 

2.038 

843 

Lead 

11.352 

.4103 

2.435 

70S 

612° 

Silver 

10.474 

2.038 

652 

1873° 

liismuth 

9.823 

2.814 

613 

47i,° 

Copper,  Cast 
"      Wrought 

g!910 

.3185 
.3225 

3.146 
3.103 

550 
555 

19<JU° 

Iron,  Cast 

7.264 

.2630 

3.806 

450 

27SO°j 

.steel 

7.816 

3.5GO 

489 

Tin,  Cast 

7.291 

.2636 

3.790 

456 

442° 

Zinc,  Cast 

7.190 

.2600 

3.845 

449 

773° 

Gold  90,  Silver  2.5,  Copper  7.5 

17.40 

Gold  66.6,  Silver,  16.7,  Copper  16.7 

12.40 

(Solder  for  Gold.) 

Zinc  10.0,  Silver,  66.6,  Copper  23.4 

9.84 

(Solder  for  Silver.) 

Bronze 

8.48  to  8.94 

537 

German  Silver 

8.48  to  8.57 

Brass 

8.4  to  8.5 

3.533 

537 

1900° 

Type  Metal 

9.854 

615 

! 

Soft  Solder 

9.55 

Music  Metal 

7.1 

|  Water 

1.000 

62* 

i 
—  _j 

SUPPLEMENT. 


STATUARY  AND  ORNAMENTAL  MOULDING,  ORDNANCE, 
MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS,  ETC. 


BY  A.  A.  FESQUET, 

CHEMIST  AND  ENGINEER. 


THE  various  methods  for  moulding  statuary,  orna* 
ments,  etc.,  explained  in  previous  pages  of  this  book, 
have  since  been  considerably  modified,  especially  in 
large  statuary  work. 

THE    WAX    PROCESS. 

In  the  so-called  "wax  process,"  a  true  mould  is  re- 
quired  for  taking  the  wax  impressions,  if  the  work  is 
to  be  done  by  the  men  of  the  foundry.  If  it  be  de- 
sired to  avoid  the  expense  of  this  mould  (generally 
of  plaster  of  Paris),  then  the  artist  himself  must  be 
there  to  model  the  wax  upon  the  core,  or  at  least  to 
repair  the  work  which  may  have  been  made  by  a 
skilled  assistant. 

Although  inconvenient  and  expensive,  this  is  the 
least  disadvantage  of  the  process.  Let  us  now  sup- 
pose that  the  core  and  its  supporting  irons  and  air- 
22  (253) 


254    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

ducts  have  received'  their  finished  wax  covering-. 
This  in  its  turn  is  covered  with  a  cope  of  loam,  in 
which  are  left  the  necessary  channels  and  gates  for 
running  the  metal.  Drying  is  the  next  operation, 
not  only  for  separating  the  wax,  most  of  which  is 
absorbed  by  the  material  of  the  mould,  but  also  for 
thoroughly  drying  all  parts  of  the  mould  and  core. 
This  heating  is  always  very  difficult,  especially  when 
the  work  is  large  and  has  an  awkward  shape,  like 
many  equestrian  statues.  An  unequal  heat  will 
have  the  tendency  to  twist  the  core  irons,  and,  the 
core  having  moved,  the  thickness  of  metal  will  not 
be  the  same  as  was  calculated,  and  it  has  happened 
quite  often  that  there  have  been  places  entirely  bare 
of  metal.  Moreover,  during  the  drying  of  such  an 
unwieldy  mass,  it  is  always  to  be  feared  that  some 
portion  of  the  cope  or  core  will  fall  and  clog  the  air 
passages  or  the  gates  for  the  metal. 

When  the  metal  is  run  into  the  mould,  always 
supposing  a  large  piece  of  work,  the  great  weight  of 
fluid  matter  produces  an  enormous  pressure,  and  to 
provide  against  loss  a  large  excess  of  metal  is  to  be 
ready  for  use. 

Even  if  every  thing  goes  on  properly,  we  have  a 
statue  heavier  in  metal  than  is  necessary,  which  has 
cost  considerable  in  moulding,  drying  and  wax,  and 
which  is  far  from  being  perfect,  and  therefore  re- 
quires a  great  deal  of  labor  for  finishing.  Indeed, 
very  few  are  the  large  statues  cast  in  one  piece 
which  have  been  entirely  satisfactory,  and  which 
have  not  been  pieced  out,  plugged,  and  otherwise 
carefully  mended.  An  excess  of  metal  is  not  an  ad- 
vantage, except  to  the  founder  when  he  sells  his 


STATUARY    AND   ORNAMENTAL   MOULDING.       255 

work  by  weight.  A  thinner  metal  produces  sharper 
casts.  On  the  other  hand,  there  must  be  sufficient 
metal  to  resist,  the  shocks  incident  to  transportation, 
to  support  its  own  weight,  and  to  stand  for  ages  the 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere 

ACCIDENTS. 

In  case  of  accident,  it  may  happen  that  the  rhjury 
is  partial  only,  and  may  be  remedied.  But,  as  gen- 
erally the  pattern  has  been  destroyed,  the  aid  of  the 
sculptor  is  needed.  If  the  failure  be  complete, 
then  we  have  to  begin  anew — sculptor,  moulder  and 
founder  alike. 

FINISHING. 

The  finishing  of  the  casting  is  also  difficult,  since 
there  is  no  pattern  to  guide  the  operator  in  reproduc- 
ing faithfully  the  artistic  inspiration  of  the  sculptor 
In  olden  times,  the  sculptor  was  also  the  moulder, 
founder  and  finisher.  In  our  time,  all  these  opera- 
tions have  become  specialties,  and  a  pattern  must 
remain  constantly  at  hand  until  the  work  is  finished. 
Tims,  in  this  manner,  a  sculptor  may  remain  at 
Rome,  and,  after  having  sent  his  plaster  pattern, 
the  subsequent  operations  of  moulding,  casting  and 
finishing,  may  be  performed  at  any  place  where  there 
arc  the  skill  and  the  implements  necessary  to  r-  \  »- 
duce  the  idea  of  the  artist  as  represented  by  his 
pattern. 

PHILADELPHIA    BRONZE    STATUARY. 
Philadelphia,  for  several  years  past    lias  been  fore- 
most on   this  continent  in   the   manufacture   of  large 
bronze  statuary,  and  the  work  begun  by  Messrs  Rob- 
ert Wood  &  Co.,  is  now  continued  by  Messrs.  Bureau 


256     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

Brothers  &  Heaton,  who  were  formerly  with  Messrs. 
Wood  &  Co. 

THE  NEW  OR  FRENCH  SYSTEM. 

The  new  system,  also  called  "the  French  system," 
is  not  entirely  new,  since  it  is  followed  nearly. every- 
where with  but  slight  modifications.  It  is  based 
on  the  following  principles:  To  keep  the  pattern, 
whether  it  be  made  of  metal,  plaster,  wood,  terra  cotta, 
wax,  or  of  any  material  able  to  bear  the  handling, 
during  the  whole  operation;  to  cast  in  flasks  and  in 
sand,  this  material  being  substituted  for  the  loam 
of  the  core  and  cope  ;  and  to  cast  a  statue,  for  in- 
stance, in  as  many  pieces  as  is  needed,  and  to  unite 
them  afterwards  to  make  up  the  whole. 

OBJECTIONS    AND    ADVANTAGES. 

A  great  many  objections  have  been  made  to  this 
mode  of  piecing,  and  we  will  indicate  some  of  them 
in  order  to  refute  them.  It  has  been  said  that  no 
such  skill  is  needed  for  casting  part  of  a  statue  as  for 
a  whole  one.  That  is  true;  but  what  is  the  advan- 
tage of  a  more  skillful  and  difficult  operation,  if  the 
results  are  not  superior,  and  the  costs  and  risks  are 
greater  ?  In  the  old  process  by  wax,  the  castings 
were  generally  inferior  in  soundness  to  those  made 
by  the  new  method,  and  an  accident  to  a  portion  of 
the  work  was  often  sufficient  to  cause  the  loss  of  the 
whole,  and,  moreover,  no  pattern  was  left.  In  the 
new  process,  an  accident  to  the  part  is  more  easily 
repaired  by  burning  or  otherwise;  and,  if  no  repairs 
can  be  made,  that  part  only  is  begun  anew,  with  the 
preserved  pattern. 

The    other    great   objections    are    the    numerous 


STATUARY   AND   ORNAMENTAL    MOULDING.      257 

seams  to  be  seen  at  the  junctions  of  the  different  parts, 
the  difficulty  of  making  these  parts  agree  when 
brought  together,  the  supposed  lack  of  strength  at 
the  joints,  and  the  greater  labor  in  finishing.  To 
this  we  answer,  that  with  the  precautions  which  we 
shall  indicate  further  on,  these  seams  can  be  made  in- 
visible. The  parts  will  agree  when  brought-together, 
if  there  is  no  giving  way  of  mould  or  core,  and  this 
is  more  readily  obtained  with  small  than  with 
larger  pieces.  The  joints  are  not  so  strong  if  pinned 
or  screwed,  as  if  they  were  a  solid  casting ;  but  we 
will  show,  in  explaining  the  process,  that  they  can  be 
made  strong  enough,  and  more,  for  all  purposes.  As 
for  greater  labor  in  mounting  and  finishing,  it  has 
not  been  proven  so.  The  time  spent  in  pinning  and 
screwing  the  pieces  together  is  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  gain  in  general  repairs,  since  the  dif- 
ferent pieces  are  generally  sounder  than  if  the  whole 
statue,  for  instance,  had  been  cast  without  joints. 

There  are  some  other  advantages  in  the  new  pro- 
cess :  The  casting  in  sand  gives  better  impressions, 
the  flasks  and  cores  are  more  easily  dried  and  re- 
paired, if  need  be ;  the  transportation  of  an  eques- 
trian or  large  statue  is  more  easy  in  pieces  than  in 
whole ;  the  thickness  of  the  metal  may  be  regulated 
to  a  nicety,  so  much  so  that  a  prancing  steed,  with 
or  without  a  rider,  may  be  made  to  stand  on  its  hind 
legs,  without  the  necessity  of  impaling  it  upon  a 
stump  for  support.  It  is  quite  sufficient  to  put  most 
metal  where  the  strain  is  greatest. 

PRACTICAL   PROCESS. 

We  now  pass  to    an  explanation  of  the  practical 

22* 


258   MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

process  itself,  and  we  will  suppose  that  we  have  to 
mould  and  cast  a  large  statue. 

The  pattern  sent  to  the  foundry  is  generally  of 
plaster  of  Paris.  It  may  be  reproduced  whole  in 
sand,  but  the  operation  will  be  difficult,  and  the  cast- 
ing less  sound  than  if  made  in  parts.  Moreover,  the 
flasks  and  cranes  will  need  to  be  of  such  dimensions, 
that  few  founders  will  be  able  to  bear  the  expense  of 
such  plant.  We  have  then  to  divide  the  pattern  in 
the  most  favorable  manner  for  moulding  and  finishing. 

There  are  no  general  rules;  but,  if  practicable,  the 
divisions  will  be  made  at  the  junction  of  the  flesh 
and  draperies,  or  at  a  seam,  a  belt,  etc.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  dimensions  of  the  flasks,  a  better  dis- 
position of  the  cores,  or  any  other  reason  requires 
the  cut  to  be  made  elsewhere,  it  is  made  there,  and 
the  junction  will  be  hidden  afterwards  when  mount- 
ing the  piece. 

SEPARATING  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  PLASTER  PATTERN. 

When  the  founder,  after  a  thorough  examination 
of  the  pattern,  has  determined  the  places  of  separa- 
tion, he  cuts  the  plaster  with  small  saws  resembling 
those  named  "  key  hole  "  saws,  or  with  a  very  handy 
instrument  made  of  two  brass  or  iron  wires  twisted 
together  (a  long  twist).  This  twisted  wire  has  no 
frame  to  support  it,  and  it  is  simply  held  by  the  hands, 
and  a  to-and-fro  motion  given.  The  pliability  of  the 
wire  makes  it  adapt  itself  to  curved  surfaces,  and  the 
cutting  away  of  the  plaster  is  quite  rapid. 

TENONS    AND    MORTISES. 

The  next  operation  consists  in  providing  the  por- 
tions of  the  pattern  thus  cut,  with  the  different  tenons 


STATUARY   AND   ORNAMENTAL   MOULDING.        259 

and  mortises  needed  for  fastening  the  various  castings 
together.  Thus,  the  pattern,  if  not  hollow  already, 
is  hollowed  out  for  the  mortise,  and  a  plaster  teuon 
added  to  the  corresponding  piece,  a  neck  or  an  arm, 
for  instance.  The  joints  of  the  tenons  and  mortises 
need  not  be  made  as  tight  and  perfect  as  a  correspond- 
ing work  in  joinery  ;  a  certain  amount  of  "  play  "  or 
looseness  being  desirable.  Where  the  plaster  pattern 
is  large  and  hollow,  like  the  body  of  a  horse  or  the 
trunk  of  a  man,  it  is  well  for  the  preservation  of  the 
pattern,  and  for  the  facility  of  handling,  to  support  it 
internally  with  cross  pieces  of  wood,  which  are  fast- 
ened with  plaster  of  Paris. 

THE    FLASKS. 

The  flasks  used  in  statuary  work  are  generally  of 
large  dimensions,  are  made  of  cast  iron,  and  have  a 
very  near  resemblance  to  those  used  in  cast  iron 
foundries.  The  metal  is  perhaps  thicker,  the  joints 
are  planed,  and  the  pins  and  fastenings  are  also  made 
with  more  care,  for  the  sake  of  greater  accuracy.  Un- 
less the  flasks  are  small,  no  cast  snugs  or  swivels  are 
employed,  but,  instead,  movable  wrought  iron  bars 
are  passed  or  bolted  through  thick  projecting  ears 
cast  with  the  flask  at  the  corners.  The  traverses  are 
also  movable,  and  various  holes  are  left  on  the  sides 
for  screwing  or  bolting  irons  of  various  lengths  for  the 
purpose  of  sustaining  the  sand. 

THE    COPES. 

In  this  kind  of  work,  it  is  difficult  to  preserve  the 
difference  between  the  drag  and  the  cope,  since  both 
flasks  are  alternately  the  one  and  the  other  ;  we  shall 
therefore  call  both  of  them  copes,  since  the  outside 


260     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

reproduction  of  the  pattern  is  made  in  them.  The 
core  will  be,  as  usual,  the  representation  of  the  hol- 
low inside  of  the  pattern,  and  'by  contradistinction, 
we  shall  call  "  false  cores  "  the  separate  pieces  beaten 
or  rammed  into  the  hollows  outside  of  the  pattern. 

THE    MOULDING. 

For  beginning  the  moulding  work,  we  bury  about 
one-half  of  the  pattern  in  the  sand  of  a  flask,  work 
the  sand  well  into  the  cavities  with  the  fingers,  and 
fill  the  remainder  of  the  flask  with  sand,  which  need 
not  be  of  any  particular  quality.  The  ramming  is  not 
hard  ;  all  that  is  needed  is  to  obtain  a  basis  sufficiently 
firm  to  prevent  any  motion  of  the  pattern  and  to  bear 
the  moulding  operations  above  it.  The  only  rule  for 
the  disposition  of  the  pattern  in  the  flask  is  to  give 
it  that  position  which  is  the  most  advantageous  for 
the  ramming  in  and  withdrawal  of  the  false  cores,  and 
for  the  subsequent  removal  and  fastening  of  the  real 
core.  For  instance,  if  we  are  moulding  the  trunk  of 
the  body  of  a  man,  it  may  happen  that  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  draperies  or  of  the  arms  will  make  it 
more  advantageous  to  dispose  the  pattern  slantingly 
or  sideways,  instead  of  flat  upon  its  back  or  its 
chest. 

The  supporting  body  of  sand  need  not  terminate 
in  a  plane  surface,  flush  with  the  top  of  the  flask;  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  raised  or  depressed  to  follow  the  con- 
figuration of  the  pattern  in  the  direction  most  suita- 
ble to  the  work.  The  only  condition  required  of  this 
unequal  surface  is  that  there  should  be  no  undercut 
portions  to  prevent  the  smooth  union  or  separation 
of  the  two  flasks. 


STATUARY   AND   ORNAMENTAL   MOULDING.       261 

When  this  surface  is  equally  smooth  and  pressed, 
it  is  well  dusted  with  charcoal  and  parting  sand  to 
prevent  the  adhesion  .of  the  pieces  moulded  above  it. 
Now  begins  the  real  work.  The  rule  is  to  begin  by 
the  hollows  on  the  surface  of  the  pattern,  and,  when 
the  work  allows  it,  to  start  from  the  surface  of  the 
flask  around  and  up  the  pattern,  like  a  bricklayer  or 
mason  building  an  arch  over  an  irregular  shaped 
vault. 

THE   FALSE   CORES. 

This  covering  ,up  of  the  pattern  by  a  greater 
or  less  number  of  false  cores,  is  sometimes  very  diffi- 
cult when  the  recesses  are  deep  and  do  not  deliver. 
For  instance,  let  us  suppose  that  the  fold  of  a  drapery 
resembles  about  one-half  of  the  figure  8.  The  sand 
rammed  into  it  cannot  be  removed  from  the  contracted 
part.  If  the  curve  enlarges  sufficiently  above  or  be- 
low, it  may  be  possible  to  slide  the  false  core  out. 
The  best  plan  is  to  lay  a  piece  of  paper  or  muslin 
against  one-half  of  the  curve,  and  ram  a  false  core 
against  it,  thin  enough  to  pass  through  the  opening. 
After  dusting  with  charcoal,  and  using  another  piece 
of  paper  or  muslin  over  that  partial  core,  fill  the 
cavity  by  ramming  in  a  new  quantity  of  sand. 

We  have  thus  two  different  false  cores,  one  over 
the  other,  and  we  are  still  in  about  the  same  predica- 
ment as  before.  But  in  this  case  we  may  cut  where 
the  opening  is  largest  a  small  portion  of  one  of 
the  superposed  false  cores,  and  withdraw  it  between 
the  ends  of  two  spatulae  or  with  steel  wires,  pointed 
or  hooked.  This  leaves  an  opening  through  which 
the  other  portions  of  the  same  false  core  may  be 


2f,2     MOULDER'S  AND  POUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

slidden  out,  whole  or  in  parts;  and  by  at  the  same 
time  pulling  at  the  paper  or  muslin  upon  which  they 
rest,  their  withdrawal  is  considerably  facilitated. 
The  removal  of  the  other  false  core  is  now  compara- 
tively easy,  especially  with,  the  aid  of  the  paper  or 
muslin. 

If  the  plaster  partition  forming  this  awkward 
shape  is  thin,  it  may  be  sometimes  more  advanta- 
geous to  knock  it  off  before  removing  the  false  core. 
The  plaster  removed  may  be  afterwards  cemented 
again  upon  the  pattern  with  a  diluted  magma  of 
fresh  plaster  of  Paris. 

These  small  false  cores  are  often  so  small  and  so 
thin  that  they  require  the  greatest  care  and  delicacy 
in  handling.  As  soon  as  they  are  removed  from  the 
pattern,  they  are  glued  together  with  a  small  smooth 
brush  dipped  in  flour  paste,  and  pinned  with  iron 
wires  to  their  backing  of  sand.  Thus,  each  one  of 
the  various  false  cores  covering  the  pattern  is  com- 
posed of  portions  more  or  less  indented,  strength- 
ened with  a  thick  backing  of  sand.  The  thin  por- 
tions, if  slender,  and  projecting  considerably,  are 
united  to  the  thick  ones  by  wire  and  flour  paste,  and 
when  the  latter  is  used,  the  union  is  better  insured  by 
scraping  off  carefully  the  charcoal  dust.  Slight  re- 
pairs are  made  with  paste  and  sand  pressed  down  with 
a  spatula.  As  the  false  cores  have  to  be  lifted  oui 
several  times  during  the  operation,  the  backing  it- 
self is  strengthened  with  iron  wires  buried  in  them, 
and  which  have  generally  the  shape  of  the  letter  S. 
Lifting  hooks  are  also  inserted  in  those  false  cores, 
which  form  the  keystones  of  the  arch  above  the  pat- 


STATUARY   AND   ORNAMENTAL    MOULDING.       263 

tern.  These  hooks  are  made  flush  with  the  surface 
of  the  false  cores,  and  in  order  to  reach  them  some 
sand  is  scooped  around  them.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  all  these  false  cores  are  separated  one  from  the 
other  by  a  parting  of  charcoal  dust.  Their  upper 
surfaces  may  be  very  irregular  in  shape,  although 
care  is  taken  that  it  presents  no  undercut  parts. 

THE  OPENINGS  OR    GATES   FOR   THE    ENTRANCE  OF    THE 
METAL. 

While  these  false  cores  are  being  built  up,  the 
founder  disposes  the  openings  or  gates  for  the  en- 
trance of  the  metal.  This  operation  requires  a  great 
deal  of  judgment  and  practice  on  the  part  of  the 
founder,  as  it  is  considerably  influenced  by  the  shape 
of  the  pattern.  However,  as  a  rule,  it  is  preferable 
to  have  small  and  numerous  gates  than  a  less  num- 
ber of  a  large  size.  The  gates  may  be  three  or  four 
times  as  wide  as  they  are  thick,  and  this  thickness 
should  not  be  much  over  that  of  the  intended  cast- 
ing. The  main  troughs  for  running  in  the  nu-tal 
and  furnishing  it  to  the  gates  are,  of  course,  larger, 
and  are  generally  built  outside  of  the  false  cores ;  for 
instance,  in  the  parting  surfaces  of  the  two  flasks. 
Branches  often  go  around  the  pattern. 

For  facilitating  the  finding  of  the  proper  places  of 
the  various  false  cores,  when  after  being  removed, 
they  are  again  put  in  position,  some  of  them  are 
marked  with  warts  or  hollows,  which  reproduce  after- 
wards corresponding  hollows  or  warts  in  the  sand 
filling  of  the  upper  flask. 

THE    SANDS    USED,    ETC. 

In  the  making  of  these  false  cores,  the  sand  is  ap- 


264     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

plied  as  follows  :  Finely  sifted  fresh  sand  is  pressed 
with  the  fingers  against  the  pattern,  and  afterwards 
rammed  with  wooden  mallets  of  various  sizes,  and 
having  the  shape  of  a  truncated  cone.  The  backing 
need  not  be  of  so  fine  a  texture.  The  fresh  sand  up- 
plied  next  to  the  surface  of  the  pattern  is  at  Philadel- 
phia, a  mixture  of  -^  Fontenay  aux  Roses,  £  Rich- 
mond, and  £  Lumberton  sands.  The  Fontenay  aux 
Roses  (near  Paris)  sand,  is  of  such  a  peculiar  open 
nature,  that  however  fine  and  well-rammed  it  may  be, 
it  still  remains  porous;  and  we  must  observe  that  all 
the  false  cores  in  statuary  are  rammed  considerably 
harder  than  is  usual  in  ordinary  foundry  work.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Fontenay  sand  is  not  sufficiently 
refractory  by  itself  to  stand  the  heat  of  a  large  body 
of  molten  metal,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  associ- 
ciate  it  with  other  sands  richer  in  silica.  Richmond 
(Philadelphia)  sand  comes  next  in  fineness,  and  the 
Lumberton,  N.  J.,  sand  is  the  coarsest  of  the  three. 

We  omitted  to  say  that  before  ramming  the  false 
cores  upon  the  pattern,  the  extremities  of  the  latter 
are  closed  by  heavy  core  prints  of  sand,  which  will 
furnish  a  solid  basis  for  the  ends  of  the  true  cores, 
when  these  are  formed. 

We  have  left  the  upper  one-half  of  the  pattern  en- 
tirely covered  with  its  false  cores.  The  upper  flask 
is  now  put  in  place,  parting  sand  or  charcoal  dust  is 
sifted  upon  the  work  done,  and  the  flask  is  filled 
flush  with  ordinary  foundry  sand,  rammed  in,  and 
maintained  by  iron  jaggers  suspended  from  the  trav- 
erse bars,  and  by  other  irons  screwed  on  to  the  sides 
of  the  flask. 


STATUARY    AND    ORNAMENTAL    MOULDING.        265 
TURNING    THE    FLASKS   OVER. 

Tbe  two  joined  flasks  are  then  turned  over,  the 
upper  flask  becoming  the  lower  one,  and  conversely. 
The  comparatively  loose  sand  which  has  been  used 
for  steadying  the  other  half  of  the  pattern  is  re- 
moved, and  also  the  flask.  This  second  half  of  the 
pattern  is  treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  wo 
have  explained  for  the  first  half,  and  the  upper  flask 
is  again  put  in  place,  filled  with  rammed  sand,  etc., 
etc. 

REMOVING    THE    PATTERN,  ETC. 

The  moulding  proper  is  now  finished,  and  we  have 
to  remove  the  pattern,  and  make  things  ready  for  the 
preparation  of  the  real  core.  We  shall  call  flask  Xo. 
1,  the  upper  one,  and  flask  Xo.  2,  the  lower  one;  both 
of  th/'iu  are  copes.  Flask  Xo.  1  is  now  raised  gently 
and  turned  over  in  some  convenient  place  in  the 
foundry.  Xothing  comes  with  it  except  the  last  fill- 
ing of  sand  bearing  the  impressions  and  marks  left  by 
the  false  cores.  These  in  their  turn  are  lifted  one  by 
one,  and  carefully  placed  in  their  respective  places  in 
Husk  Xo.  1,  which  becomes  a  hollow  mould  for  be- 
ginning the  real  core. 

This  hollow  mould  in  flask  Xo.  1  is  carefully  ex- 
amined to  see  that  everything  is  right,  and  it  is 
painted  over  with  a  smooth  brush  dipped  in  a  dilute 
solution  of  flour  paste,  holding  fine  charcoal  in  sus- 
pension. It  would  be  difficult  to  apply  dry  charcoal 
dust  in  deeply  undercut  parts.  The  openings  of  the 
gates  are  plugged  with  cotton  wadding,  and  those 
cavities  which  are  too  narrow  for  the  introduction  of  a 
real  core  are  filled  with  sand,  simply  pressed  by  the 
23 


266     MO'jLDER'S   AND    FOUNDER'S   POCKET    OUIDE. 

fingers,  and  a  parting  of  charcoal  put  upon  them. 
Tliis  preparatory  filling  of  small  cavities  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary,  since,  if  filled  at  once  with  the  sand 
of  the  real  core,  they  may  be  separated  when,  the 
latter  is  pared  down  and  removed. 

KEQLIREMENTS    FOR    AN    INSIDE    OR   REAL   CORE. 

It  is  required  of  a  good  inside  (real)  core  thai  it 
should  be  sufficiently  porous  to  allow  for  the  escape 
of  the  air  ani  gases.  It  should  be  firm  enough  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  fluid  metal,  and  at  the  same 
time  yield  somewhat  to  the  contracting  effort  of  the 
metal  when  it  hardens  and  cools  off.  These  condi- 
tions are  fulfilled  with  a  somewhat  coarse  sand  and 
no  hard  ramming.  The  Philadelphia  piactice  is  to 
use  a  mixture  of  Lumber  ton  and  Richmond  (Phila- 
delphia) sands  for  the  outside  of  the  core,  and  coarse 
Lniuberton  for  the  inside.  The  first  layer  of  sand  is 
applied  with  the  hands,  and  with  a  gentle  pressure  j 
aud  before  filling  with  the  coarser  saud,  the  support- 
ing irons  are  to  be  put.  in  place.  The  sizes  and  dis- 
positions of  these  irons  vary  with  the  dimensions  and 
shape  of  each  pattern.  Kods  and  bars  are  bent  to 
shape,  and  are  fastened  by  means  of  wires.  For  a 
large  pattern,  the  binding  with  wires  is  not  suffi- 
ciently strong,  and  the  welding  of  large  liars  is  too 
troublesome.  For  instance,  we  have  to  prepare  the 
true  core  of  the  lower  part  of  a  man's  body.  Each 
leg  will  need  a  stout  iron  bar,  aud  each  bar  may  have 
a  different  bent,  but  they  will  meet  somewhere  at  an 
angle,  and  a  firm  union  must  be  made  there.  \Ve 
may  operate  as  follows:  The  two  bars  are  connected 
with  wire,  and  a  kind  of  hollow  well  is  built  of  core 


STATUARY    AND   ORNAMENTAL    MOULDING.        267 

sand  all  around  where  the  union  is  to  be.  This  well 
is  tnen  filled  with  molten  zinc,  which,  in  cooling, 
firmly  unites  the  two  bars.  Lead,  or  ordinary  tin 
solder,  is  too  soft  and  yielding  for  this  purpose. 

AIR   AND    GAS   PASSAGES. 

While  the  core  is  building,  air  and  gas  passages  are 
provided,  and  are  filled  with  tallow  candles.  This 
prevents  the  crumbling  in  of  the  sand,  and  the  tallow 
will  be  melted  during  the  drying  process.  The  con- 
nection of  these  air  passages  with  the  outside  of  the 
flask  is  made  by  means  of  brass  tubes,  or  wrought, 
iron  gas  pipes. 

FINISHING    THE    TRUE    CORE. 

When  the  true  core  has  filled  liable  No.  1,  we  go  to 
flask  JSTo.  2,  and  cover  it  with  a  new  flask,  No.  3. 
The  latter  is  filled  with  sand,  rammed  no  tighter  than 
is  necessary  to  support  the  second  mould  and  the 
pattern  when  turned  over.  A  board  is  put  over  flask 
No.  3,  which  is  joined  to  No.  2,  and  the  whole  is 
turned  over,  so  that  No.  2  becomes  uppermost,  and  is 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  explained  for 
No.  1.  But,  in  this  case,  instead  of  making  the 
transfer  of  the  false  cores  to  their  respective  places 
in  flask  No.  2,  we  take  these  false  cores  from  the' 
periphery,  beginning  at  the  base,  and  build  them  over 
flask  No.  1.  The  real  core  is  continued  layer  by  layer, 
and,  as  it  approaches  completion,  the  sand  is  gently 
pressed  with  the  fingers  against  the  topmost  false  core. 

The  moulding  of  the  real  core  is  now  finished  en- 
tirely upon  flask  No.  1;  one-half  is  inside  of  this  flask, 
and  the  other  half  outside,  but  is  covered  with  false 
cores  belonging  to  flask  No.  2. 


268      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

TO  REMOVE  THE  TRUE  CORE. 

To  remove  the  true  core,  we  proceed  as  follows : 
The  false  cores  on  top  are  transferred  to  their  re- 
spectire  places  in  flask  No.  2.  and  fastened  there. 
The  true  core  is  then  pared  down  to  the  desired 
thickness  of  metal,  by  scraping  enough  sand  from  its 
surface  by  means  of  a  steel  spatula,  flat  or  curved. 
Sometimes,  when  great  accuracy  is  desired,  small 
holes  are  drilled  at  various  places  through  the  sand, 
by  means  of  a  drill  provided  with  a  stop  adjusted  to 
the  proper  thickness.  These  holes  indicate  how  far 
the  scraping  off  of  the  sand  may  proceed.  When  the 
upper  half  of  the  true  core  is  thus  scraped,  flask  No. 
3  comes  again  into  use  for  supporting  it,  when  flask 
No.  1  is  turned  uppermost.  The  latter  is  afterwards 
removed,  and  the  false  cores  are  transferred  to  it, 
leaving  the  remaining  half  of  the  true  core  to  be  re- 
duced or  scraped  down  to  the  proper  thickness,  as  in- 
dicated before.  The  true  core  is  now  ready  to  go 
into  the  drving-room  or  stove. 

FASTENING    THE    FALSE    CORES    WITH    WIRES. 

During  the  last  transfer  of  the  false  cores  to  their 
proper  places  in  flasks  Nos.  1  and  '2,  it  is  necessary 
to  fasten  them  to  the  sand  filling  with  iron  wires 
passed  through  them  like  nails.  But,  as  the  sand  of 
the  false  cores  has  hardened,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
drill  the  holes  with  long  and  narrow  gimlets,  revolved 
by  rubbing  them  between  the  hands.  The  wires, 
heavily  coated  with  flour  paste,  are  then  passed 
through  these  holes,  and  are  fastened  flush.  In  some 
cases,  us  when  false  cores  have  been  formed  between 
the  legs  of  animals,  or  between  a  limb  and  outside 


STATUARY    AND    ORNAMENTAL    MOULDING.        269 

draperies,  etc.,  they  would  prevent  the  placing  of  the 
true  core,  if  they  were  made  fast  in  the  flask.  Such 
false  cores  are  therefore  let  loose,  and  are  slidden  into 
their  places  only  when  the  true  core  is  put  into  the 
mould  before  casting. 

When  the  false  cores  are  completely  fastened  and 
repaired,  wherever  there  is  a  joint  for  two  con- 
necting pieces  cast  separately,  we  scrape  off  a  little 
of  the  sand  at  the  edge,  so  as  to  obtain  a  kind  of  lip 
all  round  the  joint  of  the  casting.  This  excess  of 
metal  will  allow  us  afterwards,  in  mounting,  to  cor- 
rect any  irregularity  in  the  casting,  and  to  make  a 
perfect  and  invisible  joint. 

INTERIOR    COATING    OF    THE    MOULD. 

Before  going  to  the  drying  room,  the  whole  interior 
cf  the  mould  receives  the  following  coats :  First, 
one  of  water,  holding  flour  paste  and  charcoal  dust ; 
second,  one  of  charcoal  and  molasses  ;  and  third,  one 
of  whale  oil.  A  smooth  brush  is  used. 

DIVIDING    THE    PATTERN, 

All  the  moulding  operations  are  now  finished,  and 
we  will  add  that,  although  it  is  desirable  that  the 
moulder  should  be  able  to  divide  a  large  pattern  into 
its  separate  pieces,  it  is  still  preferable  that  he  should 
communicate  beforehand  with  the  artist,  and  that 
they  should  agree  together  as  to  the  best  way  to  cut 
up  the  model.  In  this  manner  the  plaster  pattern, 
made  from  the  clay  model,  is  from  the  start  cut  into 
its  separate  pieces  under  the  supervision  of  the  artist, 
who  may  make  the  necessary  repairs 
23* 


270    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

DRYING  THE  MOULDS. 

The  drying  of  the  moulds  and  cores  must  be  thor- 
ough, at  the  temperature  necessary  to  remove  all 
dampness.  We  may  cast  brass  and  bronze  in  green 
sand,  which  has  been  slightly  rammed ;  but,  in  the 
previous  operations,  the  moulding  sand  has  been  so 
tightly  compressed  that  it  must  be  perfectly  dry, 
otherwise  there  is  bodily  danger.  Moreover,  the 
castings  of  bronze  and  brass  are  not  so  sharp  in 
green  as  in  dry  sand. 

The  moulds,  when  out  of  the  drying  room,  are  care- 
fully examined ;  all  the  dust  is  blown  or  brushed 
away,  and  a  coat  of  oil  is  laid  upon  the  small  cracks 
produced  while  drying. 

TEMPERATURE    OF    THE    MOULDS. 

For  casting,  the  moulds  should  not  be  too  cold, 
otherwise  they  will  attract  the  dampness  of  the  at- 
mosphere, especially  in  murky  weather.  Neither 
should  they  be  too  warm,  because  any  lurking  damp- 
ness will  hang  as  steam  in  the  mould.  Before  clos- 
ing the  moulds,  a  heavy  coat  of  flo^ur  paste  is  laid  on 
the  sand  of  the  lower  flask,  just  next  to  the  metal  of 
the  flask;  this  makes  a  tight  joint  when  the  two 
flasks  are  fastened  together. 

PRESSURE. 

A  certain  amount  of  pressure  from  fluid  metal  is 
advantageous,  but  not  an  sxcess.  For  large  patterns, 
the  flasks  may  be  tilted  or  inclined  from  twenty  to 
twenty -five  degrees  over  the  horizon.  Smaller  pat- 
terns may  be  inclined  more.  When  the  outside  run- 
ners have  begun  to  harden  the  flasks  are  loosened 


STATUARY    AND    ORNAMENTAL   MOULDING.        271 

somewhat,  and  if  the  casting  is  considerable,  its  re- 
moval is  postponed  until  the  next  day. 

REPAIRING   ACCIDENTS. 

We  will  now  suppose  that  some  accident  has  hap- 
pened by  which  a  small  portion  only  of  the  casting 
is  defective.  If  the  position  of  the  defect  allows  of 
it,  the  repair  will  be  done  by  burning,  that  is,  by 
placing  the  casting  upon  sand  moulded  to  the  proper 
shape,  and  by  allowing  a  pot  of  hot  metal  to  run 
over  the  defect  until  there  is  a  thorough  welding  be- 
tween the  sound  part  and  the  new  one.  If  the  shape 
of  the  casting  forbids  this  process,  then  the  defective 
portion  is  cleanly  cut  off  with  the  chisel,  and  a  new 
piece  is  cast  in  a  mould,  taking  care  to  form  lips  (as 
already  explained)  all  around  the  outside  edge  of  this 
new  piece.  For  the  smaller  repairs,  and  the  screws, 
pins,  and  plugs  necessary  in  mounting,  the  founder 
casts  rods  of  various  diameters,  and  of  the  same  metal 
used  for  the  other  large  pieces. 

MELTING   THE    METAL. 

Small  articles  are  cast  from  crucibles.  Large  cast- 
ings may  also  be  obtained  from  metal  melted  in  a 
number  of  crucibles  heated  at  one  time,  and  the  con- 
tents of  which  are  united  in  a  large  pouring  ladle. 
But,  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  preferable  to  use  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace.  A  cupola  has  sometimes  been  em- 
ployed for  melting  large  quantities  of  brass  and 
bronze,  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  copper  alloy 
was  improved  when  a  few  charges  of  cast  iron  had 
been  previously  passed  through  the  furnace.  The 
operation  is  cheaper  in  the  cupola  than  in  the  rever- 


272    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

beratory,  but  it  is  difficult  and   uncertain  to  obtain 
with  the  former  an  alloy  of  constant  composition. 

MOUNTING    OR   JOINING    THE    PARTS    OF    A    STATUE. 

The  mounting  or  joining  of  the  different  component 
parts  of  a  statue,  for  instance,  comprises  also  the  re- 
pairs, the  finishing,  and  sometimes  the  bronzing.  It 
is  not  a  merely  mechanical  operation,  and  the  finisher 
must  have  sufficient  art  education  to  be  able  to  fol- 
low faithfully  the  sentiments  of  the  sculptor  as  rep- 
resented by  the  pattern  under  his  eyes,  and  to  supply 
what  may  be  missing.  When  the  casting  has  been 
separated  in  the  foundry  from  its  runners,  core  sand 
and  irons,  the  oxide  of  its  surface  is  removed  by  sul- 
phuric or  muriatic  acid,  to  which  a  small  proportion 
of  nitric  acid  is  sometimes  added.  As  soon  as  the 
surface  is  clean  and  bright,  the  casting  is  thoroughly 
rinsed  in  water,  dried,  and  brought  to  the  mounting 
room.  The  excess  of  metal  at  the  joints  and  run- 
ners is  chiseled  off.  The  small  defects  and  pin  holes 
are  plugged  with  rods  of  the  same  metal,  used  as 
screws  or  plugs.  The  latter  are  preferable,  since  they 
may  be  riveted  down  so  as  to  leave  no  joints  visible. 
In  either  case,  it  is  preferable  to  slightly  enlarge  the 
defect  wilh  a  drill.  If  the  hole  goes  through  t In- 
whole  thickness  of  the  metal,  the  plug  is  made  con- 
ical and  is  hammered  down  tight,  with  a  head  still  left. 
This  head  is  partly  chiseled  off  and  hammered  again, 
but  not  so  powerfully  as  before.  When  the  head  of 
the  plug  is  but  slightly  above  the  surrounding  metal, 
it  is  further  condensed  with  a  chasing  tool,  and  the 
final  level  is  given  with  the  file  or  the  chiset.  On  the 
other  hand,  should  the  hole  penetrate  a  part  only  of 


STATUARY    AND    ORNAMENTAL    MOULDING.        273 

the  thickness  of  tbe  metal,  it  is  desirable  to  enlarge 
the  base  of  the  hole  by  inclining  the  drill  somewhat, 
or  by  finishing  with  another  drill  having  a  cutting 
wing  further  apart  from  the  centre  than  the  other. 
Such  a  drill  will  pass  through  the  opening  of  the  pre- 
vious hole,  but  will  enlarge  its  base.  By  properly 
hammering  and  condensing  the  plug  in  the  aforesaid 
manner,  it  will  enlarge  at  the  bottom  and  make  a 
thoroughly  tight  fit.  It  is  more  difficult  to  render 
invisible  the  joints  of  screws. 

THE    JOINTS    OF    SEPARATELY    CAST   PIECES. 

We  have  already  said  that  the  joints  of  separately 
cast  pieces  are  made  like- tenons  and  mortises,  not 
straight,  square  and  tight,  but  following  the  outline 
of  the  pattern,  and  with  a  certain  amount  of  loose- 
ness. Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  to  fit  a  head  cast 
separately  from  the  body,  of  a  modern  hero  wearing 
collar  and  neck-tie.  Very  likely  the  separation  of 
the  pattern  has  been  effected  at  the  junction  of  the 
neck  with  the  garment.  We  slip  the  head  into  its 
corresponding  mortise  in  the  body,  and  examine  if  it 
has  a  firm  seat  and  agrees  with  the  plaster  cast.  With 
the  chisel  and  the  file  we  fit  the  two  surfaces  together, 
and  then  arrange  for  the  fastening  of  the  two  pieces 
to  each  other.  This  is  done  by  means  of  pins  of  the 
same  metal  as  the  cast  passing  through  corresponding 
holes  in  the  two  castings.  These  holes  should  not 
l.c  exactly  concentric  ;  that  in  the  tenon  of  the  head 
should  be  a  little  higher  than  that  in  the  collar.  It 
results  from  this  inequality,  that  when  the  conical 
pin  is  firmly  driven  in,  it  produces  a  powerful  pres- 
sure of  the  head  downwards  upon  its  seat  on  the 


'27 1     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

body.  Those  pins  are  afterwards  cut  off  and  con- 
densed in  the  manner  already  explained,  until  their 
places  cannot  be  seen.  The  lips  or  excess  of  metal 
cast  on  the  outside  periphery  of  the  joints  now  re- 
quire the  attention  of  the  finisher.  The  line  of  junc- 
tion of  the  two  pieces,  which  is  still  visible,  is  closed 
by  compressing  with  a  chasing  tool  the  two  opposite 
l.ps  toward  each  other.  A  ridge  is  thus  formed 
which  is  lowered  down  with  the  chisel.  Another 
compression  of  the  metal  is  followed  by  part  of  the 
excess  of  metal  being  removed  with  the  chisel,  and 
so  on,  until  the  metal  is  at  the  proper  level,  and  the 
joint  is  invisible.  This  operation  may  be  done  so 
well  that  the  joint  is  ofien  made  on  naked  parts,  al- 
though it  is  desirable,  when  practicable,  to  choose 
the  line  of  a  seam,  a  girdle,  etc.  In  a  similar  manner 
pieces  are  often  put  on  a  defective  part,  on  the  holes 
left  by  the  core  irons,  air  pipes,  etc.  The  pieces  are 
provided  with  lips  for  condensing  the  metal  into 
the  joints. 

TOOLS    REQUIRED. 

Chisels,  chasing  tools,  straight  and  bent  files, 
scrapers,  etc.,  are  employed  for  finishing  the  casting. 
A  description  of  the  process  would  be  foreign  to  our 
purpose,  and  what  we  have  explained  of  tiie  mount- 
ing operation  is  intended  to  show  the  founder  what 
he  should  provide  for  the  mounter  and  finisher. 

PATTERNS    WHICH    MAY    BE    CAST    BY    THIS    PROCESS. 

The  moulding  process  for  statuary,  which  we  have 
tried  to  explain  in  its  minutiie,  allows  of  the  casting 
of  any  patterns,  however  complicated  and  undercut 
they  may  be.  Jt  is  long  in  consumption  of  time,  and 


STATUARY    AND    ORNAMENTAL    MOULDING.        215 

expensive  in  labor,  and  the  work  may  be  considerably 
simplified  if  the  castings  are  comparatively  small, 
and  are  to  be  repeated  several  times.  In  such  cases 
the  patterns  are  preferably  made  of  metal,  and  of 
several  pieces,  if  need  be,  connected  with  movable 
pins  and  screws.  The  moulding  is  made  in  the  afore- 
said manner,  but  the  true  cores  are  prepared  in 
separate  boxes  of  metal,  wood,  or  plaster  of  Paris. 
The  latter  substance  is  very  handy  for  the  purpose, 
but  it  is  not  sufficiently  hard  for  resisting,  for  a  long 
time,  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  wet  sand  packed  in 
these  cores. 

HARDENING    THE    PLASTER — ALUM    PLASTER. 

The  hardness  and  wearing  qualities  of  plaster  may 
be  considerably  increased  by  saturating  it  with 
boiled  linseed  oil  or  wax,  or  still  better,  by  using 
plaster  of  Paris  combined  with  alum,  and  prepared 
as  follows  : — 

First  process. — Small  lumps  of  freshly  calcined 
plaster  are  thrown  into  water,  holding  in  solution 
about  12%  of  alum.  When  these  lumps  have  become 
saturated  with  the  liquid,  they  are  removed,  dried, 
and  calcined  at  a  dark  red  heat.  After  pulverization 
and  sifting,  the  plaster  is  ready  for  use. 

Second  process.  — Powdered  raw  plaster  is  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  about  3%  of  its  weight  of  finely 
ground  alum,  and  then  calcined,  powdered,  and  sifted. 

The  first  process  is  more  expensive  than  the  second, 
but  the  product  is  better.  This  alum-plaster  requires 
about  60%  of  water  for  its  hydration,  and  the  setting 
takes  place  in  about  one  hour.  This  is  about  one- 
half  of  the  water  required  for  ordinary  calcined 


276     MOULDER'S  AND  POUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

plaster,  but  the  setting  takes  about  three  or  four 
times  as  long.  The  tenacity  and  hardness  of  alum 
plaster  (set)  are  about  50%  greater  than  those  of 
common  plaster,  and  it  takes  a  beautiful  polish. 

MOULDS    FOR   CASTINGS    OF    WHITE    METALS. 

When  the  castings  are  made  of  white  metals,  such 
ns  zinc,  tin,  lead,  etc.,  and  their  alloys,  and  they  are 
to  be  repeated  often,  the  moulds  are  made  of  iron, 
brass,  or  bronze,  and  of  as  many  pieces  as  are  re 
quired.  In  order  to  obtain  a  good  casting,  and  also 
to  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  metallic  moulds,  the 
latter  have  their  insides  smeared  with  a  light  coat  of 
oil,  or  oil  and  ochre,  or  water  and  clay,  or  ochre  and 
the  white  of  egg,  or  soot. 

ZINC    CASTINGS. 

Castings  of  pure  zinc  contract  so  much,  that  they 
would  break  if  the  core  were  not  yielding.  On  this 
account  the  sand  cores  are  not  thoroughly  dried,  and 
the  zinc  is  generally  alloyed  with  a  small  proportion 
of  lead  and  tin.  The  moulds  must  be  perfectly  dry. 

SOLDERS. 

It  is  said  that  a  good  solder  for  uniting  zinc  cast- 
ings together,  is  composed  of  two  parts  tin  and  one 
part  zinc.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  used  for  removing 
the  oxide  from  the  surfaces. 

Solder  for  pewter  ware. — Lead  five  parts,  tin  three, 
and  bismuth  one,  with  oil  upon  the  joints. 

Solder  for  Britannia  metal — Tin  ten  parts,  lead 
three,  and  oil  on  the  joints. 

MOULDING    IN   WAX. 

If  moulding  in  wax  for  large  pieces  has  been  justly 
discarded,  it  may  still  be  advantageously  applied  for 


PLASTIC   CLAY.  277 

the  reproduction  of  small  aud  intricate  patterns,  like 
those  found  in  the  ornamental  castings  of  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese.  We  believe,  also,  that  these  people 
render  their  metals  highly  fluid  by  the  addition  of  a 
small  proportion  of  arsenic  and  antimony,  which 
latter  metals  should  be  employed  very  sparingly, 
since  they  render  the  alloys  brittle  and  unsuitable, 
because  dangerous,  for  vessels  used  in  the  kitchen. 

PLASTIC  CLAY  FOB  DEEPLY-CUT  PATTERNS. 

When  ornaments  or  other  kinds  of  castings  are  to 
be  obtained  of  a  given  thickness  from  a  pattern  which 
is  deeply  cut  but  not  undercut,  plastic  clay  may 
be  used  with  advantage.  The  pattern  being  placed 
upon  a  board  or  any  other  suitable  support,  is  cov- 
ered with  a  flask,  and  an  impression  of  its  upper  sur- 
face is  taken  in  sand.  We  then  remove  this  flask, 
which  we  call  cope  No.  1.  Another  impression  is 
taken  with  another  flask,  which  becomes  cope  No.  2. 
After  repairing  the  sand  impressions,  if  need  be,  of 
both  flasks,  we  press  with  the  fingers  into  the  hollow 
of  cope  No.  2  a  sheet  of  clay  rolled  to  the  proper 
thickness.  If  the  pattern  is  intricate,  the  rolled  clay 
is  cut  into  small  pieces,  pressed  in  place,  one  after  the 
other,  and  carefully  disposed  as  to  their  joints,  which 
must  be  close  without  sticking  together.  This  is 
prevented  by  coating  these  joints  with  oil.  The  clay 
lining  is  cut  close  and  flush  with  the  sand  outside 
of  the  hollow,  and  for  a  parting  one  or  two  coats  of 
alcohol  varnish  are  given  to  the  surface  of  the  clay. 
A  drag  is  then  filled  with  sand  upon  cope  No.  2,  and 
the  two  flasks  are  separated.  For  greater  security 
the  sand  of  cope  No.  2  is  carefully  removed  down  to 
24 


278        MOULDER'S  AND    FOUNDER'*    IMCKET    GUIDE. 

the  clay,  which  in  its  turn  is  peeled  off  piece  by 
piece.  The  drag  is  then  fastened  to  cope  No.  1  for 
casting.  But,  in  this  case,  it  will  be  preferable  to 
turn  the  drag  uppermost,  in  order  to  have  the  outbid ', 
surface  of  the  casting  at  the  bottom,  and  more  free 
from  sullage  and  runner  marks. 

BRASS  AND  BRONZE    ORNAMENTAL  CASTINGS    FOR  DOOR 
LOCKS,   KNOBS,   HINGES,  ETC. 

There  are  made  at  the  present  time  of  brass  or 
bronze  many  ornamental  castings  for  door  locks, 
knobs,  hinges,  etc.,  which  are  sharply  cast,  and  are 
put  into  the  trade  with  little  or  no  chasing.  Some 
parts  are  ground  and  polished  by  machinery.  Very 
satisfactory  results  may  be  obtained  from  a  good  pat- 
tern and  fine  sand  perfectly  dried.  The  whole  of  the 
sand  in  the  flask  need  not  be  so  very  fine,  merely  that 
near  the  pattern.  Perhaps  the  addition  of  some  trip- 
oli  to  the  fine  sand  will  improve  the  casting,  but  it 
will  be  necessary  to  experiment  with  the  tripoli, 
since  several  kinds  found  in  the  trade  are  not  well 
adapted  to  the  purpose. 

In  order  to  force  the  fluid  metal  into  the  most  min- 
ute parts  of  the  mould,  processes  of  compression  or 
suction  have  been  employed.  In  the  method  of  com- 
pression, the  whole  mould  is  placed  in  a  stout  metal- 
lic vessel  which  can  be  made  air-tight  rapidly,  and 
immediately  after  pouring  the  metal.  The  compres- 
sion is  produced  either  by  an  air  pump  or  by  explod- 
ing a  small  quantity  of  gunpowder.  This  process  is 
too  complicated  and  costly  of  plant  to  come  into  gen- 
eral use. 

The  suction  or  vacuum  process  consists  in  placing 


OSSEPIA    FOP.    MOULDING.  279 

the  l-ottom  flask  or  mould  in  connection  with  an  as- 
I  lira  ting  air  pump.  The  fluid  metal  is  thus  sucked 
into  the  smallest  recesses  of  the  mould.  It  is  said 
tliat  such  moulds  are  made  of  a  porous,  sandy  ma- 
terial, which  is  afterwards  bakrd  like  bricks,  and 
may  be  used  several  times. 

OSSEPIA  FOR  MOULDING  SMALL  ARTICLES. 

Another  material  sometimes  employed  for  mould- 
ing small  articles,  such  as  medals,  buttons,  etc.,  is 
ti.e  os>epia  used  in  bird  cages  for  the  birds  to  sharpen 
or  clean  their  beaks  upon.  This  substance  is  mostly 
limestone,  that  is,  carbonate  of  lime,  which  will  lose 
its  carbonic  acid  if  a  metal  melted  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture is  poured  into  it.  One  portion  of  the  ossepia  is 
hard,  the  other  is  soft,  and  it  is  the  latter  which  is 
used.  Its  surface  is  made  flat  by  rubbing  it  upon  a 
marble  or  iron  slab,  and  the  pattern,  which  must  not 
be  undercut,  is  pressed  into  it  with  the  fingers. 
After  withdrawing  the  pattern,  a  long  but  narrow 
ingate  is  cut  with  a  knife,  and  the  mould  is  heated 
and  smoked  over  an  oil  lamp.  The  other  part  of  the 
mould  is  a  flat  fire  brick,  against  which  the  ossepia  is 
fastened  with  clamps  or  binding  wires. 

Il  both  faces  of  a  medal  are  to  be  moulded  at  the 
same  time,  two  pieces  of  ossepia  are  employed  in 
juxtaposition.  In  this  case,  the  compression  is  ef- 
fected by  squeezing  the  pattern  between  the  two 
pieces  of  ossepia  until  their  flat  and  soft  surfaces 
meet.  Then,  keeping  everything  firm,  and  before 
removing  the  pattern,  two  or  three  holes  are  bored 
through  both  bones,  outside  of  the  pattern  of  course, 


280     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

for  small  wooden  pins,  put  there  to  insure  the  proper 
position  before  pouring  the  metal  in. 

DIFFICULTY  OF  THE    METAL    REACHING    THE  EXTREMI- 
TIES IN  SMALL  CASTINGS. 

In  small  castings  it  is  often  difficult  for  the  metal 
to  reach  the  extremities,  either  because  it  has  ceased 
to  be  fluid,  or  because  the  air  in  the  mould  prevents 
its  advance.  Thus,  angles  become  rounded,  a  sharp 
nose  becomes  a  pug  nose,  fingers  are  minus  their 
tips,  etc.  When  such  accidents  are  to  be  expected, 
the  experienced  moulder  will,  with  the  proper  tools, 
remove  some  of  the  sand  at  such  places,  so  as  to  give 
room  for  more  metal ;  and  if,  after  casting,  the  nose 
has  a  wart  at  its  end,  or  the  fingers  have  extra  long 
nails,  the  excess  of  metal  will  be  easily  removed  by 
the  chisel  and  file. 

NEW    ALLOYS. 

These  are :  aluminum-bronze,  phosphor-bronze, 
spiegeleisen,  silicum-copper,  and  manganese-copper. 

The  last  two  have  been  introduced  into  the  arts 
quite  recently,  but  tlrere  is  so  much  contradiction  in 
the  results  obtained  that  some  time  will  pass  before 
we  know  anything  certain  about  their  practical 
"value. 

ALUMINUM-BRONZE. 

Aluminum  bronze  has  been  employed  for  orna- 
ments, small  statuary,  machinery,  and  philosophical 
instruments.  It  is  pleasing  in  color  and  difficult  to 
oxidize  ;  it  can  be  forged,  and  it  possesses  great  still- 
ness and  wearing  qualities.  It  would  find  a  great 
many  uses  in  the  arts  except  for  its  cost,  aluminum 


PHOSPHOR-BRONZE.  281 

being  still  an  expensive  raetal,  and  unnecessarily  so, 
as  some  persons  believe.  Several  alloys  have  been 
tried,  but  those  which  have  given  the  best  results 
are  copper  95,  aluminum  5;  copper  90,  aluminum  10. 
For  the  bearings  of  very  fast-revolving  shaft-1,  alum- 
inum-bronze has  been  found  to  e^cel  all  other  allovs. 
Hardened  steel  itself  had  to  give  way  to  aluminum- 
bronze  for  "the  small  punches  used  for  perforating  the 
holes  for  separating  postage  and  revenue  stamps.  Jt 
also  gives  sharp  castings.  Pure  aluminum  has  also 
been  used  for  small  statuary. 

PHOSPHOR-BRONZE. 

Phosphor-bronze  is  also  considerably  used  in  the 
arts  for  castings,  plate  and  wire  drawings.  It  is 
generally  alloyed,  with  zinc  and  tin  in  variable 
proportions  to  suit  the  wants  of  the  trade.  The 
alloy  for  statuary  is  quite  fusible,  and  fills  the  mould 
well.  Under  the  file  and  chasing  tools,  it  is  not  su- 
perior to  the  ordinary  bronze.  When  carefully  pre- 
pared, it  is  homogeneous,  and  takes  a  satisfactory 
bronze  color  with  the  chemicals. 

For  machinery  bearings,  pump  cylinders,  etc.,  phos- 
phor-bronze has  acquired  a  just  renown.  Its  consid- 
erable resistance  to  strains,  and  its  slow  oxidization, 
make  it  a  valuable  material  for  the  wire  ropes  of 
mines,  which  are  always  exposed  to  dampness,  and 
often  to  the  action  of  acid  waters. 

The  manufacture  of  the  alloy  of  copper  with  phos- 
phorus is  a  rather  delicate  operation,  which  is  per- 
formed in  special  establishments.  The  founder  buys 
the  phosphorrbronze  in  ingots,  and  prepares  his  mix- 
tures with  it. 
24* 


282    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

This  alloy  is  now  gaining  favor  for  cylinder  valve- 
faces,  where  high-pressure  steam  is  used,  and  for 
bearings  where  heavy  pressures  are  applied.  Its 
component  parts  consist  of  copper,  tin,  and  phosphor- 
us, and  it  is  capable  of  being  made  tough  and  mal- 
leable, or  hard,  according  to  the  proportions  of  the 
several  ingredients.  It  is  rendered  so  liguid  in  the 
molten  state  by  the  addition  of  the  phosphorus,  that 
it  forms  very  clean  castings. 

Messrs.  Levi  &  Kingel,  of  the  Val  Benoit  Nickel 
works,  near  Liege,  Belgium,  have,  for  a  number  of 
years  past,  been  engaged  in  making  experiments  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  bronzes  of  this  kind.  The 
results  of  their  experiments  are  thus  summed  up  by 
M.  Dumas: 

"  The  color,  when  the  proportion  of  phosphorus 
exceeds  ^  per  cent.,  becomes  warm  and  like  that  of 
gold  largely  mixed  with  copper.  The  grain  and 
fracture  approximate  to  those  of  steel,  the  elasticity  is 
considerably  increased,  the  absolute  resistance  under 
a  fixed  strain  becomes  more  than  doubled,  the  density 
is  equally  increased,  and  to  such  a  degree  that  some 
alloys  are  with  difficulty  touched  by  the  file.  The 
metal  when  cast  has  great  fluidity,  and  fills  the  mould 
perfectly.  By  varying  the  dose  of  phosphorus  the 
particular  characteristic  of  the  alloy  which  is  most 
desired  can  be  varied  at  will." 

In  a  series  of  experiments  at  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Industry  at  Berlin,  a  bar  of  phosphor-bronze  (pro- 
portions of  components  not  stated),  under  a  strain  of 
ten  tons,  resisted  862,980  bends,  while  the  best  gun- 
metal  broke  after  102,650  bends. 


SPIEGELEISEN,    SNAP   FLASKS,    ETC.  283 

lu  Austria  the  following  comparative  results  have 
been  obtained: 

Absolute  Resistance. 

Pounds  per 
square  ineli. 

Phosphor-bronze 81,798 

Krupp  cast-steel 72,25.3 

Ordnance  bronze 31,792 

8PIEQELEISEN. 

Spiegeleisen  (mirror  iron)  is  an  alloy  produced  in 
blast  furnaces,  and  is  composed  of  iron, .with  8  to  12 
%  of  manganese,  and  a  greater  proportion  of  com- 
bined carbon  than  is  found  in  any  ordinary  cast  iron. 
Its  fracture  presents  large  and  shiny  facets,  which 
are  very  hard.  It  seems  to  be  indispensable  in  the 
manufacture  of  steel  by  the  Bessemer  and  Siomens- 
Martin  processes;  but,  in  our  case,  the  founder  will 
have  some  opportunity  in  using  it  as  an  alloy  with 
other  kinds  of  pig-iron,  when  the  castings  require  to 
have  a  smooth  and  hard  wearing  surface,  as  for  steam 
cylinders,  steam  valves  etc.  The  more  prudent  way 
is  to  try  the  mixtures  in  a  crucible,  and  to  cast  the 
sample  in  the  dry  sand.  The  proper  degree  of  hard- 
ness is  when  the  metal  is  difficult  to  file,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  is  easily  turned  and  planed. 

SNAP    FLASKS,    PLATE    MOULDING,    ETC. 

In  the  manufacture  of  small  articles  of  cast  hard- 
ware, either  plain  or  rendered  malleable,  a  considera- 
ble economy  of  space  and  of  flasks  is  effected  by  using 
small  flasks,  which  can  be  opened  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  moulded  sand  within  may,  without  disturb- 
ance, be  left  on  the  casting  floor,  and  the  flask  used 
again.  Some  of  these  flasks  are  as  large  as  2  feet  by 


284      MOULDEll'iS    AND    FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

2  feet  9  inches,  but  those  most  in  use  are  small 
enough  to  be  easily  carried  by  one  man.  They  are 
generally  made  of  wood,  one  of  the  square  corners 
lias  outside  hinges,  and  the  opposite  or  diametrical 
corner  is  provided  with  a  clic  fastening  which  closes 
with  a  snap. 

When  the  cube  of  moulded  sand,  inclosed  within 
the  drag  and  cope,  is  deposited  on  the  foundry  floor, 
it  is  then  covered  with  a  thick  plate  of  cast  iron,  pro- 
vided with  several  holes.  The  weight  of  the  plate 
compresses  the  two  parts  of  the  mould,  and  one  of  its 
holes  is  made  to  correspond  with  the  pouring  one  in 
the  sand.  This  hole  is  then  marked  with  chalk. 

The  small  patterns  of  wood  or  metal,  and  always 
the  latter  if  the  castings  are  to  be  numerous,  are  laid 
down  close  to  each  other,  and  are  fastened  upon  one 
or  two  level  plates  in  the  process  of  plate  moulding. 
If  one  plate  only  is  used,  one-half  of  the  pattern  is 
on  top,  and  the  other  half  underneath.  Therefore  in 
moulding,  the  plate  is  put  between  the  cope  and  the 
drag,  and,  after  the  ramming  of  the  sand,  the  plate 
is  removed,  and  the  two  flasks  are  linked.  The 
objection  to  the  process  is  that  the  plate  bearing 
the  patterns  will  warp,  and  the  two  surfaces  of  the 
Husks  will  cease  to  be  parallel  during  the  moulding; 
thence,  irregularity  of  thickness  in  the  castings.  It 
is  ulso  quite  difficult  to  fasten  the  one  half  of  the  pat- 
tern exactly  underneath  the  other  half,  when  they  are 
separated  by  the  plate.  The  slightest  deviation  from 
the  true  position  is  reproduced  in  the  casting.  These 
objections  are  still  more  evident  when  two  plates  arc 
employed,  each  with  one-half  of  the  pattern.  With 
the  multiplication  of  pieces  we  arc  very  apt  to  multi- 


PLATE    MOULDING,    ETC.  285 

ply  the  errors.  In  fact,  the  real  advantage  of  plate 
moulding  is  when  the  whole  of  the  pattern  is  on  one 
side  of  the  plate,  or  when  parts  of  the  pattern  are  so 
slender  that  they  would  bend,  if  they  were  moulded 
otherwise. 

We  may  avoid  the  above-mentioned  difficulties  by 
proceeding  as  follows :  The  pattern  is  of  metal,  and 
is  stiff  enough  to  require  no  backing  plate.  It  may  be 
separated  into  halves  if  the  shape  requires  it,  and  it 
is  provided  with  the  necessary  core  prints,  and  the 
sprues  connecting  with  the  pouring  hole'.  We  need 
three  flasks :  a  cope,  a  drag,  and  a  third  one,  which 
we  call  the  supporting  flask.  Of  course  the  cope  and 
the  drag  must  correspond,  and  be  linked  together  per- 
fectly ;  the  supporting  or  third  flask  may  differ,  but 
slightly,  from  the  others.  In  fact,  it  is  desirable  that 
the  three  flasks  should  be  so  much  alike  that  they 
may  be  used  together  indiscriminately.  The  first 
operation  is  to  prepare  the  supporting  flask.  The 
pattern  is  inverted  into  the  comparatively  loose  sand 
of  the  cope  in  the  position  it  ought  to  occupy  there. 
The  sand  is  compressed  around  it  with  the  fingers 
and  the  ramming  block,  and  the  surface  is  well 
smoothed.  The  supporting  flask  is  then  placed  over 
the  cope,  parting  sand  is  dusted  over,  and  moulding 
sand  is  carefully  and  strongly  rammed  over  the  pro- 
jecting half  of  the  pattern.  Sii>ce  the  sand  of  the 
supporting  flask  will  not  be  used  for  casting,  it  does 
not  matter  if  the  ramming  has  been,  too  hard  The 
object  is  to  obtain  a  good  bearing  or  support  for  the 
pattern,  when  the  sand  of  the  cope  is  afterwards  and 
repeatedly  rammed  upon  it. 


£•86     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  MOULD  FOR  CASTING. 
We  are  now  ready  for  the  preparation  of  the  mould 
for  casting.  Lay  the  pattern  in  its  place  upon  the 
supporting  flask,  place  the  cope  upon  the  latter,  dust 
with  the  parting  sand,  and  ram  the  moulding  sand  to 
the  proper  degree  of  firmness.  Sweep  off  the  excess 
of  sand  and  invert  both  flasks,  the  cope  being  below. 
Then  remove  the  supporting  flask,  leaving  the  whole 
pattern  in  the  cope.  Cover  the  latter  with  the  drag, 
du>t  with  parting  sand,  ram  the  moulding  sand,  and 
s\\  ei'p  off  the  excess  with  a  flat  rule  or  board.  Next, 
separate  drag  from  cope,  rap  and  remove  the  pattern 
and  return  it  to  its  proper  place  upon  the  supporting 
flask.  Before  closing  drag  and  cope,  examine  for 
defects  and  repair  them,  and  see  that  the  pouring  hole 
is  open  and  clean.  Finally,  dust  with  charcoal  powder, 
link  the  two  flasks,  and  deposit  them  on  the  level  floor 
of  the  foundry.  The  flasks,  if  of  the  snap  kind,  are 
opened,  removed,  and  used  again  in  the  same  manner. 
The  pouring  hole  is  formed  with  a  wooden  conical 
plug,  the  smaller  end  of  which  is  rested  upon  the  sprue 
of  the  pattern,  while  the  cope  is  filled  with  sand.  For 
small  articles,  the  rapping  is  not  given  directly 
to  the  pattern,  but  to  an  intermediary  steel  wire 
screwed  into  a  hole  for  the  purpose.  The  screwed  wire 
being  held  in  the  left  hand,  is  rapped  in  various 
directions  with  an  iron  or  wooden  rod.  The  pattern 
i.-,  then  lifted  with  the  same  screwed  wire. 

DOOR  HINGES  AND  SWIVELS  OF  CAST  IRON 

As  examples  of  small  castings,  we  would  name  the 
moulding  of  door  hinges  and  of  swivels,  made  entirely 
of  cast  iron.  The  operation  requires  two  mouldings 


DOOR   HINGES,    ETC.  297 

and  two  castings.  In  the  first  moulding  one-half  of 
the  hinge  is  moulded,  and  the  pattern  is  made  so  a.s 
to  give  a  full  print  of  the  whole  length  of  the  barrel, 
that  is  to  say,  the  cylindrical  part,  where  the  motion 
takes  place.  We  will  suppose  that  the  barrel  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  the  upper  and  lower  ones 
belonging  to  this  moulded  half  of  the  hinge,  and  the 
middle  one  to  the  other  half  to  be  moulded  and  cast 
afterwards.  Before  closing  the  flasks,  we  insert  in  the 
middle  of  the  print  of  the  barrel  a  small  sand  core, 
the  cylindrical  part  of  which  equals  in  length  about 
one-third  of  the  barrel,  and  with  the  ends  in  the 
shape  of  obtuse  cones.  After  casting,  the  upper  and 
the  lower  parts  of  the  barrel  will  each  have  a  conical 
hollow  for  fastening  the  portion  of  the  barrel  belong- 
ing to  the  other  half  of  the  hinge. 

The  pattern  for  the  second  moulding  is  larger,  since 
it  comprises  the  whole  hinge  spread  open.  When 
the  print  is  made,  the  half  of  the  hinge  already  cast 
is  put  into  its  position  in  the  mould,  and  the  other 
half  is  cast.  It  is  probable  that  the  chilling  effect 
of  the  cold  metal  upon  the  new  one  run  into  the 
mould,  will  prevent  adherence;  nevertheless,  it  is 
more  prudent  to  give  a  coat  of  fine  parting  sand  with 
shellac  varnish  or  drying  linseed  oil,  upon  those 
places  of  the  previously  cast  half  hinge  which  will 
come  in  contact  with  the  fluid  metal.  Moreover,  this 
parting  allows  of  a  more  easy  closing  and  opening  of 
the  hinge  when  it  is  completed. 

We  operate  in  a  similar  manner  for  the  swivel.  The 
smaller  part,  penetrating  the  other,  is  cast  first. 
Then  the  whole  pattern  is  moulded,  and  the  first 
part  is  placed  in  its  prints,  after  having  been  coated 


288    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

with  the  preparation  mentioned   above,    to  prevent 
adherence. 

UNITING   OP   CAST   AND   WROUGHT   IRON. 

We  have  just  been  providing  against  adherence. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  quite  difficult  to  obtain  a  complete 
adherence  when  it  is  needed,  as,  for  instance,  when 
we  have  tooinite  cast  to  wrought  iron  in  ornaments, 
fences,  small  wheels,  etc.  The  quality  of  both  metals 
is  impaired  at  the  place  of  contact,  and  their  adher- 
ence is  by  no  means  certain.  Recently,  and  with 
some  appearance  of  reason,  it  has  been  proposed  to 
tin  the  ends  of  wrought  iron  bars  inserted  into  cast 
iron.  By  the  action  of  the  hot  metal  there  is  pro- 
duced a  tin  alloy,  intermediary  between  the  cast  and 
wrought  irons,  and  acting  as  a  solder.  How  much 
this  solder-alloy  counteracts  the  effects  of  chilling 
and  contraction  we  are  not  prepared  to  answer.  We 
might  trust  small  wheels  built  with  wrought  iron 
spokes,  fastened  to  the  rim  and  nave  in  this  manner, 
but  the  security  is  insufficient  for  large  pieces  of 
machinery. 

SMALL   SAND    CORES. 

F-mall  sand  cores  require  to  be  carefully  made,  and 
the  wooden  core  boxes  are  frequently  painted  with 
shellac  varnish  and  lampblack,  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  lifting  of  the  cores.  The  smaller  these  are,  the 
finer,  generally,  the  sand  is  required  to  be,  and 
enough  passage  for  the  gases  is  provided  by  burying 
in  the  sand  iron, wires,  which  are  withdrawn  when 
the  core  is  pressed.  If  the  shape  of  the  core  is  too 
crooked  to  allow  of  the  pulling  out  of  the  metallic 
wire,  this  is  substituted  by  a  string.  The  binding 


FITTING    THE   CORE,    ETC.  289 

muU'rial  for  the  sand  is  either  clay  water  or  about 
1  volume  of  powdered  rosin  to  30  or  35  volumes  of 
Siind,  or  1  volume  of  unbolted  rye  meal  to  12  or  15 
volumes  of  sand.  Sometimes,  for  coarse  sand,  a 
mixture  of  rosin  and  rye  meal  is  employed.  It  has 
also  been  proposed  to  use  potato  starch,  which  has 
been  previously  heated  to  the  temperature  at  which 
it  is  transformed  into  dextrin. 

FITTING    OF    THE   CORE    IN    ITS    PLACE. 

The  rapping  to  which  the  pattern  is  subjected 
increases  the  size  of  the  core  prints;  therefore,  in 
order  to  insure  a  perfect  fitting  of  the  core  in  its 
place,  either  tne  core  box  should  be  slightly  larger 
than  the  core  print,  or  the  latter  should  be  slightly 
smaller  than  the  core  box,  something  like  ^V  to  gJ4  of 
an  inch,  according  to  the  dimensions  and  shape  of 
the  pattern.  It  is  important  that  there  should  be  no 
shake  of  the  core  when  in  the  flasks. 

MALLEABLE    IRON    CASTINGS 

The  manufacture  of  the  so-called  malleable  iron 
castings,  requires  a  metal  in  which  all  the  carbon  is 
in  the  combined  state;  that  is  to  say,  a  white  metal 
which  parts  easily  and  equally  with  its  carbon  in  the 
subsequent  annealing  operation.  A  gray  casting 
would  be  very  slow  in  losing  its  carbon,  and  the 
metal  would  be  honey-combed  at  those  places  where 
the  uncombined  or  graphitic  carbon  was  present.  The 
metal  preferred  for  such  castings  is  a  mottled  pig, 
which  is  run  with  an  admixture  of  scraps  from  the 
cupola.  When  a  still  better  metal  is  desired,  the  pig 
iron  is  melted  in  pots,  or  in  a  reverberating  furnace, 
and  it  is  poured  out  when  it  has  lost  a  certain  amount 
25 


290      MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

of  its  carbon.  The  proper  time  is  ascertained  by 
taking  samples  of  the  molten  metal  now  and  then, 
and  casting  them  into  small  cylinders  about  five 
inches  long  and  one  inch  in  diameter.  Two  such 
cylinders  are  cast  at  the  same  time,  one  is  allowed 
to  cool  slowly  in  the  sand,  and  the  other,  while  red 
hot,  is  cooled  in  water.  The  metal  is  ready  for 
casting  when  the  fracture  of  the  cylinders  is  slightly 
mottled  for  the  one  cooled  in  sand,  and  nrurly  white 
for  the  other  chilled  in  water. 

The  shrinkage  of  such  white  nu-tal  castings  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  same  articles  made  of  gray 
iron.  A  rough  average  is  \  inch  per  foot. 

CUPOLAS. 

We  see  no  change  in  the  general  description  and 
principles  of  cupolas  as  described  in  previous  editions 
of  this  book,  although  numerous  inventors  have 
brought  forward  modifications  in  the  shape  and  di- 
mensions of  the  furnace.  Some  give  it  an  elliptical  or 
conical  section  ;  others  increase  the  number  of  the  tuy- 
eres or  surround  the  cupola  with  a  casing  in  which 
the  blast  may  be  heated,  etc.  It  has  been  found  in 
cupolas,  the  same  as  in  blast  furnaces,  that  in  order 
to  be  effective,  the  hot  blast  must  be  very  hot. 
Then  there  is  a  real  economy  of  fuel.  But  the  oiab- 
lishment  of  hot  uir  stoves  does  not  pay  for  cupolas, 
because  the  work  of  the  latter  is  intermittent. 

BLAST. 

A  steam  blast,  similar  to  that  employed  on  locomo- 
tives, has  been  applied  to  cupolas.  That  is  to  say,  a 
jet  of  steam  is  made  to  escape  at  the  top  of  the 
furnace,  and  the  vacuum  produced  causes  the  atmos- 


BLAST.  291 

pheric  air  to  enter  the  cupola  through  the  tuyeres. 
In  this  process,  the  amount  of  steam  used  is  about 
equal  to  that  needed  for  the  motor  of  the  fan.  The 
saving  is  in  the  fan  and  the  machinery  to  move  it. 
The  pressure  of  the  blast  is  weak. 

A  better  understanding  of  the  principles  of  com- 
bustion, and  of  the  best  place  for  the  greatest  tem- 
perature in  the  furnace,  has  led  of  late  years  to  the 
introduction  of  blast  at  a  greater  pressure  than  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  with  the  ordinary  centrifugal  fans. 
These  latter,  no  matter  how  fast  they  are  revolved, 
cannot  give  more  than  a  certain  amount  of  pressure. 
Other  blowers,  on  the  contrary,  have  their  vanes  so 
tightly  constructed,  that  the  air  imprisoned  within 
cannot  go  backwards,  and  is  forced  in  front  to  the 
tuyeres. 

Among  the  first  blowers  built  on  this  principle,  are 
those  manufactured  by  Mr.  Root.  More  recently, 
the  Baker  blower  has  been  introduced  into  many 
foundries,  and  gives  satisfaction.  The  Baker  blower, 
being  entirely  of  metal,  it  has  been  possible  to  make 
the  lines  of  junction  of  the  vanes  with  great  accuracy, 
and  thus  to  insure  against  leakage  of  the  air  or  loss 
of  pressure.  The  vanes  of  the  Root  blower  are  of 
wood,  and  wear  out,  or  warp  to  a  small  extent ;  but 
Mr.  Root  remedies  this  by  covering  them  with  a 
kind  of  stiff  ointment  which  it  is  easy  to  put  on 
when  needed.  We  have  seen  a  ten  horse  power 
Baker  blower  working  at  a  regular  pressure  of  one 
to  one  and  one-quarter  pounds  per  square  inch, 
which  could  be  increased  to  three  pounds  by  con- 
tracting the  outlet.  A  column  of  one  inch  of  mercury 
corresponds  very  nearly  to  half  a  pound  of  pressure 
per  square  inch. 


292    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

FONDERIE  A  CALEBASSE 

Is  the  Belgian  name  of  small  cast  iron  foundries 
producing  principally  small  articles  of  hardware, 
ornaments,  and  such  objects  as  those  in  which  the 
strength  of  the  metal  is  of  secondary  importance. 
They  may  manufacture  a  good  metal  by  employing 
a  good  metal,  but  they  generally  use  all  kinds  of 
scraps.  This  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  the  cale- 
basse  process ;  moreover,  the  cheapness  of  the  appar- 
atus brings  it  within  the  reach  of  those  with  little 
means.  There  is  no  necessity  to  wait  until  enough 
moulds  are  ready  for  filling  with  the  metal  of  a  large 
cupola;  consequently,  there  is  an  economy  of  foundry 
floor,  of  flasks,  and  of  other  foundry  appliances.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  consumption  of  fuel  is  compara- 
tively greater  than  in  a  cupola ;  but  the  fuel  may  be 
of  inferior  quality,  such  as  light  coke,  and  even 
bituminous  coal.  The  metal  obtained  is  very  hot 
and  fluid,  and  it  is  possible  to  make  the  mixtures  just 
such  as  are  desired. 

The  furnace  is  like  a  foundry  ladle,  with  trunions 
to  move  and  turn  it  about;  the  shape  is  a  truncated 
cone,  the  larger  diameter  of  which  is  on  top.  Over 
this  ladle  or  crucible  is  a  movable  cylinder  of  strong 
sheet  iron,  and  at  the  place  of  junction  there  are  two 
corresponding  half  circles  which  form  the  hole 
through  which  the  tuyere  passes  The  whole  is 
placed  against  a  wall  and  under  a  metallic  hood. 

The  blowing  apparatus  is  a  fan,  making  from  eight 
hundred  to  one  thousand  revolutions  per  minute,  and 
connected  with  the  tuyere  by  a  leather  sleeve,  which 
allows  of  the  ready  removal  of  the  tuyere,  or  of  its 
inclination  to  various  angles. 


ORDNANCE.  293 

Both  the  crucible  and  the  cylinder  above  are  loam- 
lined  like  foundry  ladles.  The  crucible  rests  upon 
rammed  sand,  and  when  the  cylinder  has  been  clay- 
luted  on,  it  is  surrounded  by  a  bank  of  dry  sand. 

The  start  is  with  fuel  alone  and  a  light  blast,  and 
the  charging  begins  when  the  ignition  is  thorough. 
As  the  operation  proceeds,  the  blast,  which  was  at 
first  horizontal,  is  made  to  be  more  dipping.  When 
the  melting  is  finished,  the  sand  is  removed,  and  then 
the  top  cylinder ;  and  the  crucible  is  ready  to  pour 
its  contents  into  the  moulds,  or  into  smaller  ladles. 

In  about  one  and  a  half  hours,  from  five  to  six 
hundred  pounds  of  metal  may  be  melted,  and  it  is 
possible  to  make  four  such  operations  in  a  day. 

SCAFFOLDING. 

When  scaffolding  occurs  in  cupolas,  it  has  been 
found  advantageous  to  blow  finely  pulverized  fuel 
with  the  blast  through  the  tuyeres.  The  intense 
heat  thus  produced  near  the  tuyeres  is  sufficient  to 
melt  the  obstruction. 

ORDNANCE. 

In  the  preceding  pages  of  this  work,  no  mention  is 
made  of  the  casting  of  ordnance  and  projectiles. 
This  omission  is  due  perhaps  to  the  objection  Mr. 
Overman  had  to  raising  statues  to  military  heroes, 
which  objection  extends,  of  course,  to  the  implements 
of  war.  Perhaps,  also,  the  author  thought  that  it 
was  unnecessary  to  repeat  on  this  subject  the  already 
explained  methods  of  loam,  green  and  dry  sand 
mouldings,  which  apply  equally  well  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  ordnance  and  projectiles. 
25* 


294    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

BRONZE  FOR  ORDNANCE 

Bronze  ordnance  is  most  generally  a  binary  alloy 
of  copper,  100  parts  to  10  to  13  of  tin.  It  is  a  ques- 
tion whether  a  slight  percentage  of  zinc  or  lead,  or 
both,  would  not  improve  the  homogeneousness  of  the 
alloy,  by  preventing  the  liquation  (separation)  of  the 
tin,  especially  when  the  metal  has  been  poured  very 
hot. 

MOULDING. 

It  is  customary  to  mould  from  a  metallic  pattern ; 
but  when  there  is  no  pattern  at  hand,  one  can  be 
made  by  the  process  explained  in  pipe  loam  mould- 
ing. A  conical  iron  mandrel  is  made  to  revolve  on 
standards,  and  is  covered  with  plaited  straw  bands 
and  then  with  loam  mixture  or  plaster  of  Paris  swept 
over  with  a  moulding  board.  When  the  last  coat  is 
dry,  it  is  Smeared  with  tallow  or  with  ashes  in  water 
for  a  parting.  The  patterns  of  truuions  and  dolphins 
have  been  prepared  separately,  and  are  now  fastened 
on.  These  pieces  had  better  be  of  plaster  instead  of 
wax,  since  the  latter  may  produce  blow  holes  in  the 
casting.  The  mould  or  cope  is  made  of  several  layers 
of  loam,  each  one  being  allowed  to  dry  before  a  new 
one  is  put  on.  Loam  .moulds,  more  than  those  of 
green  and  dry  sand,  are  open  to  the  objection  of 
being  permeated  by  the  fusible  bronze,  and  that  to 
the  extent  of  requiring  a  dead  head  equal  to  oni'-thinl 
instead  of  one-fourth  of  the  weight  of  the  onlnanco 
casting.  This  is  remedied  to  a  certain  extent  by 
making  the  first  coat  of  loam  about  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  thick,  and  following  it  with  another  coat  com- 
posed of  two-fifths  white  sand  and  three-fifths  of 


ORDNANCE.  295 

plaster  of  Paris,  and  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness. 

The  mould  is  strengthened  on  the  outside  by  longi- 
tudinal iron  bars,  kept  in  place  by  hoops  and  bind- 
ing wires.  The  drying  is  effected  at  such  a  temper- 
ature that  the  plaster  of  the  core  falls  into  powder 
when  the  filling  is  removed.  It  is  customary  to 
mould  the  breech  part  of  the  ordnance  separately. 

The  casting  is  made  with  the  mould  upright  in  a 
pit,  with  its  bottom  resting  in  a  metallic  basket.  The 
pit  is  filled  with  dry  sand,  which  must  be  equally 
rammed,  otherwise  the  mould  may  break. 

MELTING   AND    POURING    THE    BRONZE. 

The  metal  may  be  poured  from  the  top,  or  from 
two-thirds  of  the  height  of  the  dead  head,  when  the 
whole  piece  is  cast  solid ;  but  the  method  by  syphon 
is  better.  It  is  preferable  to  melt  the  bronze  in 
reverberatory  furnaces  instead  of  in  a  cupola,  since 
with  the  latter  the  copper  has  a  tendency  to  become 
carburized,  and  the  last  runnings  are  so  rich  in  tin 
that  the  alloy  is  white.  The  metal  should  be  run 
hot,  but  not  too  much  so,  otherwise  the  tin  will  sepa- 
rate and  the  metal  will  not  be  homogeneous.  When 
liquation  takes  place,  an  excess  of  tin  will  likely  fix 
itself  to  the  junction  of  the  trunions,  thus  weakening 
them  by  the  formation  of  an  alloy  very  hard  and  brit- 
tle, or  by  a  honey-combing  filled  with  nearly  pure  tin. 

The  loam  of  the  mould  adheres  strongly  to  the 
casting,  and  contains  from  two  to  three  per  cent,  of 
metal. 

SHRINKAGE. 

The  shrinkage  of  ordnance  bronze  is  about  -fs, 
which  corresponds  to  about  ^  of  one  inch  per  foot. 


296     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

GEN.  UCHATIUS'S  EXPERIMENTS  UPON  INCREASING  THE 

HARDNESS  AND  ELASTICITY  OF  BRONZE. 
Some  experiments  made  by  Gen.  Uchatius,  direc- 
tor of  the  Arsenal  at  Vienna,  seem  to  show  that  the 
hardness  and  elasticity  of  bronze  may  be  considera- 
bly improved  by  compression.  The  metal  which 
gave  the  best  results  is  composed  of  copper  92  and 
tin  8.  The  bore  is  enlarged  about  two  per  cent,  of 
its  diameter  by  conical  plugs  forced  in  by  hydraulic 
pressure.  The  metal  thus  treated  is  said  to  possess 
the  resistance  and  wearing  qualities  of  steel. 

MOULDS  FOR  BRONZE  AND  CAST  IRON  AND  STEEL 
ORDNANCE. 

Green  sand  moulds  have  been  used  for  cast  iron 
ordnance ;  but  the  sand,  not  being  rammed  hard 
enough,  does  not  stand  the  pressure  of  the  fluid 
metal  as  well  as  dry  sand,  which  may  be  rammed 
harder. 

Dry  sand  moulding,  at  the  present  time,  seems  to 
be  the  method  preferred  for  the  manufacture  of  ord- 
nance, either  bronze,  cast  iron,  or  steel.  For  the 
facility  of  handling,  the  mould  is  made  in  parts, 
and  the  flasks  are  carefully  planed  and  made  to 
correspond  to  each  other  when  they  are  joined  one  over 
the  other  in  the  casting  pit.  Sand  shrinks  during 
the  drying  process  about  ^^,  and  this  is  to  be  pro- 
vided for,  otherwise  there  will  be  an  empty  place  at 
the  junction  of  the  flasks.  The  drying  room  is 
brought  to  a  temperature  of  not  over  450°  F. 

PIG   METAL    USED   FOR   ORDNANCE. 

The  pig  metal  used  for  ordnance  must  be  tough, 


ORDNANCE.  297 

close  grained,  gray,  and  free  from  foreign  substances. 
In  Sweden,  however,  a  metal  with  a  small  percentage 
of  sulphur  is  preferred.  If  the  pig  is  melted  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace,  it  is  recommended  to  use  cast 
iron  bars  for  stirring  the  metal,  which  might  become 
white  by  dissolving  wrought  iron  tools. 

MOULDING    SAND. 

The  moulding  sand  should  not  contain  too  much 
coal,  otherwise  the  gases  would  escape  with  difficulty. 
A  good  composition  is — 

New  sand 91 

Old  burnt  sand 8 

Coal  dust 1 

100 

In  order  to  prevent  the  sullage  from  lodging  at  the 
trunions,  these  are  sometimes  separated  from  the 
body  by  a  thin  piece  of  cast  iron  perforated  with 
holes.  This  will  be  melted  by  the  fluid  metal,  but 
only  when  the  sullage  has  risen  above  the  protect- 
ing plate.  The  dead  head  is  about  one-quarter  of 
the  weight  of  the  piece  of  ordnance. 

CAST    STEEL    GUNS. 

Cast  steel  guns,  and  some  of  them  of  enormous 
size,  are  now  manufactured  in  large  quantities.  We 
do  not  know  whether  they  require  any  special  mode 
of  moulding,  but  the  experiments  with  puddled  steel 
have  not  been  entirely  satisfactory.  The  best  metal 
is  cast  steel  melted  in  pots. 

ORDNANCE    CAST    SOLID    AND    WITH    CORES. 

lu  the  methods  which  we  have  just  examined,  the 
pieces  of  ordnance  were  cast  solid,  that  is  to  &uy, 


298  MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

without  prepared  cores.  There  is  more  metal  to 
remove  afterwards,  but  the  bore  will  be  true  instead 
of  eccentric,  as  would  be  the  case  if  the  tool  were 
deviated  from  its  direction  by  a  previous  irregular 
hole.  However,  if  the  hole  left  by  a  core  is  much 
smaller  than  the  required  caliber,  a  properly  built 
boring  bit  will  not  deviate  from  the  axis,  especially 
if  the  gun  is  also  made  to  rotate  in  a  direction  in- 
versely to  that  of  the  tool.  Of  course,  the  core  must 
not  be  outside  of  the  diameter  of  the  caliber. 

The  principal  advantage  of  cores  left  in  casting  is 
that  the  metal  will  be  cooled  from  the  outside  and 
the  inside  at  the  same  time,  and  that  its  crystalliza- 
tion will  be  more  equal  in  the  mass,  thus  insuring 
greater  homogeneousness.  In  the  Rodman  system 
of  casting  ordnance,  chilling  cores  are  employed, 
in  which  water  is  made  to  circulate.  This  is  a 
dangerous  process  if  a  leak  should  occur,  and  com- 
pressed air  may  be  substituted  for  water  as  a  cooling 
agent. 

*When  a  core  is  used,  it  is  firmly  suspended  from  a 
platform  above  the  pit,  and  the  metal  is  poured  from 
below,  by  means  of  a  syphon. 

.Mortars  are  generally  cast  with  a  core. 

CASTING    CANNON    BALLS 

Solid  cannon  balls  were  formerly  cast  in  chilled 
moulds,  but  the  metal  was  found  to  be  too  hard,  and 
its  surface  too  coarse.  They  are  now  moulded  in 
gi-een  sand  with  bronze  or  cast  iron  patterns,  the 

latter  metal  being  .-aid  to  retain  its  shape  better  than 
bronze.  The  horizontal  or  equatorial  diameter  (in 
the  flask)  of  the  pattern  is  slightly  greater  than  the 


ORDNANCE.  299 

vertical  or  polar  one.  The  casting  is  by  two  runners, 
the  sprues  of  which  reach  the  mould  at  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  greatest  horizontal  diameter  of  the  pattern, 
that  is*  to  say,  at  the  junction  of  the -two  flasks,  since 
each  flask  contains  one-half  of  the  mould.  As  soon 
as  the  runners  are  solidified,  the  flasks  are  turned 
upside  down,  in  order  to  retain  the  spherical  shape 
of  the  bullet,  and  to  bring  to  the  centre  the  hollow 
resulting  from  the  contraction  of  the  metal.  Should 
the  bullets  be  found  too  large,  the  sand  is  rammed 
tisrhter;  and  conversely,  the  ramming  is  less,  if  the 
bullet  is  too  small. 

After  cleaning  the  bullets  of  adhering  sand,  fins, 
etc.,  they  are  brought  to  a  red  heat,  and  then  com- 
pressed in  every  direction  under  a  trip  hammer,  the 
striking  part  of  which  is  a  hollow  segment  of  a  sphere, 
corresponding  to  the  caliber  of  the  ball.  The  anvil 
has  also  a  similar  hollow.  While  the  hammering 
goes  on,  a  small  stream  of  water  is  allowed  to  fall 
upon  the  hot  ball.  This  operation  compresses  the 
metal,  polishes  it,  and,  at  the  same  time,  is  severe^ 
enough  to  cause  the  fracture  of  the  imperfect  castings 

HOLLOW    PROJECTILES. 

The  manufacture  of  hollow  projectiles  requires  a 
similar  mode  of  pouring  the  metal,  and  of  turning 
over  the  flasks  after  the  solidification  of  the  runners. 
Formerly  the  cores  were  of  straw  and  loam  ;  now 
they  are  of  sand,  compressed  in  core  boxes  made  in 
four  compartments  in  order  to  produce  an  equal  pres- 
sure over  the  material.  Passages  for  the  air  and 
gases,  and  irons  for  fastening  the  core  under  the 
drag,  are  provided.  These  cores  are  stove-dried. 


300     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

In  the  mould,  the  neck  and  lugs  of  the  hollow  pro- 
jectile are  below,  that  is,  in  the  drag  flask. 

HOLLOWNESS   IN    "SOLID    SHOT"    CAUSED   BY  COOLING. 

We  see  that  the  so-called  solid  shot  is,  after  all, 
hollow  in  the  centre.  The  solidification  of  the  metal 
begins  on  the  outside  next  to  the  sand,  and  continues 
to  the  centre.  By  the  contraction  which  takes  place, 
the  metal  is  condensed  against  the.sides,  and  a  hollow 
results  somewhere  inside.  If,  in  the  casting  of  the 
shot,  the  flasks  were  not  turned  upside  down,  the 
fluid  metal,  following  the  law  of  gravity,  would 
remain  in  the  lower  part  of  the  mould,  and,  by  its 
contraction  in  cooling,  would  suck  down  the  upper 
portion  of  the  shot,  which  is  thinner,  and,  then' I  ore. 
less  resisting.  In  this  case,  the  hollow  would  not 
be  in  the  centre  of  the  sphere,  but  above,  and  the  top 
of  the  shot  would  be  somewhat  flattened.  It  is  to 
provide  against  these  defects,  that  what  still  remains 
of  fluid  metal  inside  of  the  shot  is  equalized  in  the 
mass  by  the  overturning  of  the  mould. 

In  the  casting  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  without  core, 
a  similar  effect  takes  place.  The  solidification  begins 
on  the  outside  and  proceeds  to  the  centre,  which 
would  be  hollow  if  the  excess  of  fluid  metal  in  the 
dead  head  were  not  there  to  feed  or  fill  up  the  con- 
tracted parts. 

CRYSTALLIZATION    OP    METALS    IN    COOLING. 

We  must  also  consider  the  important  fact  that,  in 
cooling,  the  metals  crystallize,  and  that  the  long  axes 
of  the  crystals  arrange  themselves  perpendicularly 
to  the  cooling  surface.  Thus  we  see  that  in  spheres 
and  cylinders,  these  crystal  axes  are  in  the  direction 


PATTERNS.  301 

if  the  radius.  Their  power  of  resistance,  that  is, 
tie  resistance  of  the  metal  itself,  is  due  to  their  close 
agglomeration.  Let  us  now  suppose  that  the  surfaces 
au'ct  at  right  angles :  the  axes  of  the  crystals  will  be 
perpendicular  to  each  surface,  but  at  the  angle  they 
w<ll  deviate  from  each  other,  and  their  resistance  to 
strains  will  be  considerably  less,  and  the  angle  will 
be  a  place  of  fracture.  The  thicker  the  casting,  the 
more  are  these  points  to  be  considered ;  because  by 
the  slow  cooling  of  a  large  mass  of  fluid  metal,  the 
crystals  are  larger  and  more  perfect.  In  a  thinner 
casting,  rapidly  cooled,  the  crystallization  is  more 
confused. 

We  may  produce  an  irregular  or  confused  crystal- 
lization by  pouring  in  a  metal  already  half  congealed  ; 
but  although  very  tough,  the  casting  will  be  so 
imperfect,  so  full  of  cold  drops,  etc.,  that  it  is,  after 
all,  preferable  to  use  hot  metal. 

PA'A  TERNS  SHOULD  HAVE  NO  SHARP  ANGLES,  ETC. 

We  infer  from  the  above  consideration  the  neces- 
sity of  preparing  patterns  in  which  there  are  no 
sharp  angles,  and  in  which  the  change  from  one 
thickness  to  another  is  gradual.  For  instance,  the 
connection  of  the  trunions  to  the  piece  of  ordnance 
should  be  made  by  easy  curves,  and  if  more  metal  is 
put  on  than  it  is  desired  for  the  finish,  this  excess  of 
metal  may  be  removed  afterwards  with  the  tools. 

In  the  method  of  casting  ordnance  solid,  the  metal 
in  the  centre  of  the  piece,  being  cooled  last,  has  more 
time  for  its  crystallization.  The  result  is  that  the 
cannon  is  tougher  on  the  outside  than  on  the  inside, 
which  is  just  the  contrary  of  what  is  necessary  to 
26 


302     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

resist  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  powder  and  of  the 
projectile.  It  is,  we  believe,  to  obviate  this  grave 
defect,  that  the  Rodman  cooling  core  has  been 
adopted. 

These  observations  apply  not  only  to  the  manu- 
facture of  ordnance,  but  also  to  the  casting  of  large 
pieces,  such  as  pumps,  hydraulic  presses,  etc. 

CHILLED    CASTINGS. 

We  know  of  no  rule  by  which  it  is  possible  to  de- 
termine a  priori  whether  a  certain  pig  iron  is  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  chilled  castings;  experience 
alone  will  settle  the  question  for  a  particular  brand 
or  for  a  mixture  of  metal.  Moreover,  the  experi- 
ments should  be  made  frequently,  since  a  difference 
in  the  mode  of  working  the  blast  furnace  may  change 
the  nature  of  a  metal  hitherto  satisfactory. 

In  former  times,  when  charcoal  pig  was  more 
plentiful  than  at  present,  chilled  castings  were  often 
obtained  from  pigs  resulting  themselves  from  a  pre- 
vious fusion  of  two  parts  of  gray  and  one  part  of 
white  or  mottled  iron.  A  certain  proportion  of 
spiegeleisen  is  said  to  be  beneficial. 

A.  WHITNEY    &    SONS'   CHILLED    CAR    WHEELS. 

The  car  wheel  works  of  Messrs.  A.  Whitney  & 
Sons,  of  Philadelphia,  show  to  what  degree  of  per- 
fection in  disposition  of  workshops,  in  labor-saving 
implements,  and  in  care  of  maintaining  a  constant 
quality  of  products,  long  experience  and  capital  may 
arrive,  especially  when  they  are  brought  to  bear  upon 
a  single  article  of  manufacture,  for  instance,  to  chilled 
car  wheels  as  in  this  case. 

The  foundry  is  provided  with  two  railroad  tracks, 


WHITNEY'S  CAR  WHEELS.  303 

each  one  of  which  serves  two  rows  of  moulds,  and  a 
space  is  left  free  in  the  middle  of  the  building  for  the 
passage  of  the  pouring  ladles,  also  mounted  on 
wheels.  The  lifting  of  moulds,  ladles,  etc.,  is  effected 
by  several  revolving  cranes  set  upon  trucks,  which 
have  the  necessary  gear  for  running  along  the  rail- 
road tracks.  In  the  centre  of  the  casting  house,  and 
on  one  side,  is  a  row  of  five  cupolas,  three  large  ones 
fur  the  regular  work,  and  two  small  ones  for  experi- 
mental purposes.  The  blast  is  given  by  two  cylin- 
ders, and,  in  order  to  secure  a  thorough  mixture  of 
the  various  kinds  of  pig  iron  employed,  the  metal 
from  the  cupolas  is  run  into  a  large  pocket  or  ladle 
which  holds^fifteen  tons  of  molten  iron,  and  which  is 
tilted  by  a  hydraulic  apparatus  when  the  smaller 
movable  ladles  are  filled.  Not  only  should  the  mix- 
ture be  homogeneous,  but  its  temperature  should  not 
be  too  high,  otherwise  the  casting  will  be  chilled  too 
deeply,  or  the  chill  mould  will  be  melted.  When  the 
metal  is  too  hot,  it  is  tempered  with  a  sprinkling  of 
water.  All  the  various  kinds  of  pig  iron  are  fre- 
quently tried  separately,  and  several  samples  are 
also  taken  of  every  day's  fabrication.  A  small  pro- 
portion of  Bessemer  steel  scraps  has  been  found  to 
toughen  the  cast  wheels.  The  foundry  scraps  are 
run  into  ingots  before  being  remelted  for  wheel 
castings. 

For  moulding,  New  Jersey,  including  Lumberton, 
sands  are  employed.  The  facing  sand  is  of  medium 
size,  rather  dry,  open,  and  of  medium  coarseness, 
with  some  bituminous  coal  dust  in  it.  The  drag  is 
rammed  on  the  periphery,  and  compressed  with  the 
feet  on  the  centre.  The  cope  is  rammed  harder,  and 


304     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

the  hub  core  is  painted  black.  The  thickness  of  U  *> 
chill  is  about  that  of  the  wheel  rim,  and  if  its  sm  fa  re- 
presents any  sand  holes,  these  are  lightly  brushed 
with  oil,  in  order  to  prevent  dampness  from  lodging 
in  them.  The  casting  gate  is  prepared  in  a  separate 
ring  box,  with  one  to  three  pouring  holes  in  the  hub 
of  the  wheel. 

When  casting  time  arrives,  the  movable  ladle 
receives  its  supply  of  metal  from  the  central  pocket, 
and  is  rolled  to  the  swinging  crane,  which  lifts  it  up 
and  brings  it  over  the  pouring  hole.  The  ladle  is 
then  tilted  by  means  of  a  movable  cross-bar  fitting 
the  trunion.  The  metal  in  the  mould  is  pumped 
with  an  iron  rod,  and,  as  soon  as  the  runner  has  set, 
the  clamps  are  removed,  the  head  of  metal  and 
the  runners  are  knocked  off,  and  the  mould  is  opened. 
The  red  hot  wheel,  with  the  hub  core  withdrawn,  is 
immediately  carried  to  the  annealing  furnace. 

This  annealing  operation  is  very  important,  since 
it  prevents  to  a  great  extent  the  breakage  which  so 
often  occurs  in  wheels  cast  in  one  piece,  especially 
those  with  spokes.  The  slow  cooling  also  equalizes 
the  tension  of  the  molecules  of  metal,  and  renders  the 
wheels  more  able  to  stand  the  shocks  of  railroad 
travel.  The  annealing  rooms  contain  rows  of  verti- 
cal cylinders  made  of  sheet  iron,  with  an  inside  lining 
of  brick  four  inches  thick.  The  diameter  of  these 
cylinders  varies,  of  course,  with  that  of  the  wheels. 
For  each  two  rows  of  cylinders  there  is  a  furnace 
grate,  which  allows  of  the  contents  being  brought  up 
to  a  bright  red  heat  at  first,  and  then  cooled  down 
by  degrees,  until,  after  three  days,  the  wheels  are 
cold  enough  to  be  removed. 


STEREOTYPES.  305 

A  very  ingenious  hydraulic  apparatus  takes  hold  of 
the  red-hot  wheels  and  lowers  them  in  a  horizontal 
position  into  the  annealing  cylinders.  The  wheels 
are  separated  one  from  the  other  by  means  of  cast 
iron  tripods  or  rings. 

After  annealing,  the  wheels  are  tried  under  the 
hammer,  and  those  which  are  sound  have  their  Iiulis 
bored  in  a  lathe.  The  imperfect  ones  are  broken  and 
melted  again. 

It  is  generally  acknowledged  that  chill  moulds 
heated  to  about  110°  F.,  will  produce  a  deeper  chill 
in  the  casting  than  perfectly  cold  moulds.  In  fact, 
the  chill  mould  should  be  hot  enough  to  prevent  the 
dampness  of  the  moulding  sand  from  condensing 
on  it. 

It  is  said  that  the  celebrated  cast  iron  wheels 
manufactured  by  the  Ganz  foundry,  of  Buda-Pesth. 
Hungary,  are  hardened  on  the  surface  of  the  rim  by 
a  very  hard  alloy  of  iron  and  antimony.  The  latter 
metal,  very  finely  pulverized,  is  mixed  with  charcoal 
dust,  and  then  spread  upon  the  sand  of  the  moulds. 

STEREOTYPES. 

Although  described  already  in  former  pages,  we 
shall  again  examine  the  stereotype  process  as  prac- 
ticed by  Messrs.  Ferguson  Brothers,  of  Philadel- 
phia, on  account  of  some  changes  in  the  mode  of 
operation. 

The  clean  type  form  is  covered  all  rtver  with  a 
mere  film  of  olive  or  sperm  oil,  applied  with  a  brush. 
Another  frame  for  the  plaster  is  placed  over  it,  and 
has  four  set  screws  to  remove  the  cast  slowly,  and  to 
regulate  its  thickness.  The  first  coat  of  plaster  of 
26* 


306     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

Paris  is  of  a  fine  and  pure  material,  but  the  backing1 
contains  sifted  coal  ashes.  Common  salt  is  added  to 
hasten  the  setting.  The  proportions  of  these  foreign 
substances  vary  with  the  quality  of  the  plaster 
employed. 

The  cast  is  removed  when  still  tepid,  and  is  heated 
directly  upon  the  molten  type  metal  This  sudden 
drying  is  said  to  give  better  impressions  than  if  the 
plaster  bad  been  allowed  to  dry  more  slowly  in  the 
air  or  in  stoves.  Let  us  see  the  reason  why  this  is 
so.  Plaster,  in  setting,  expands ;  if  all  the  particles 
of  plaster  were  of  the  same  size,  had  been  equally 
calcined,  and  had  absorbed  an  equal  amount  of  water, 
the  expansion  would  be  the  same  all  over,  and  at  the 
same  time.  Now,  in  practice,  it  is  not  so ;  the  parti- 
cles of  plaster  are  irregular  in  size,  their  degree  of 
calcination  is  different,  and  their  action  is  more  or  less 
rapid  in  absorbing  water.  It  results  from  these  con- 
siderations that  the  portions  of  plaster  which  have 
absorbed  their  quota  of  water,  and  have  set,  are 
pushed  from  their  position  by  the  expansion  of  the 
plaster  behind,  which  had  not  completed  its  hydrata- 
tion  at  the  same  time.  Therefore,  the  print,  which 
is  correct  and  sharp  immediately  after  removing  the 
cast,  will  become  blurred  if  the  hydratation  is  al- 
lowed to  go  on  slowly  afterwards.  A  sudden  heating 
and  drying  will  reduce  to  a  minimum  this  motion  of 
the  plaster.  On  the  other  hand,  there  would  be  dan- 
ger of  breaking  the  cast  if  its  material  were  nut 
rendered  very  porous  by  the  addition  of  ashes. 

For  obtaining  the  metallic  impression,  the  plaster 
cast  is  put,  print  downwards,  into  a  flat  cast  iron 
boat,  swinging  from  a  crane  over  the  metallic  bath, 


ELECTROTYPES.  307 

the  temperature  of  which  is  such  as  to  slightly  brown 
proof  paper.  The  angles  of  the  boat  are  square,  aud 
its  sides  are  slanting.  The  distance  from  the  plaster 
cast  to  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  that  is,  the  thickness 
of  the  stereotype,  is  regulated  by  metallic  rules,  and 
the  plaster  cast  is  prevented  from  rising  by  cross-bars 
and  pressure  screws.  The  metal  is  introduced  slowly 
into  the  heated  boat,  until  boat,  plaster  cast,  and 
metal  have  acquired  the  same  temperature,  when  the 
excess  of  metal  is  removed.  The  boat  is  then  allowed 
to  cool  by  placing  its  bottom  over  water  or  damp 
sand,  and,  as  the  metal  contracts,  enough  fluid 
metal  is  added  to  keep  the  casting  fast  against  the 
plaster ;  the  plaster  cast  is  then  broken,  and  the 
stereotype  is  ready  to  be  trimmed.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  metal  is  about  fifteen  parts  of  antimony 
to  one  hundred  of  lead. 

ELECTROTYPES. 

The  superior  wearing  qualities  of  copper  electro- 
types,  and  their  greatly  reduced  cost,  have  considera- 
bly increased  their  uses  of  late  years.  A  brass  form 
is  filled  with  compressed  beeswax,  and  the  tvpr, 
engraving,  or  other  pattern  which  delivers,  is  pri-s.-cil 
into  it.  Plumbago  is  now  laid  upon  the  print  with 
soft  brushes  of  long  goat  hair.  This  substance  alone 
is  sufficient  to  conduct  the  electricity ;  but  the  deposit 
is  slow  at  the  beginning,  and  until  the  whole  surface 
is  covered  with  copper.  The  deposit  of  metal  is  not 
regular,  being  thicker  on  the  sides  than  on  the 
middle.  By  a  recent  process,  the  whole  plumbago 
surface  is  covered  with  a  film  of  copper,  which  is  a 
much  better  conductor  than  plumbago  alone,  and  the 


308     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

further  electro-deposit  of  copper  in  the  bath  is  more 
rapid  and  regular.  This  starting  coat  of  copper  is 
obtained  as  follows:  The  surface  of  wax,  which  has 
been  carefully  covered  with  plumbago,  is  washed  by 
pouring  on  a  mixture  of  water  and  alcohol,  thru  laid 
flat  on  a  sink  and  covered  with  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper.  Fine  iron  filings  are  sifted  over  it,  and 
are  lightly  moved  about  with  a  kind  of  swab.  As 
soon  as  copper  has  been  deposited,  the  iron  filings 
are  washed  over,  and  the  operation  is  repeated  two 
or  three  times.  The  plate  is  then  ready  to  go  into 
the  bath,  where  the  copper  deposit  will  acquire  the 
proper  thickness. 

The  finished  copper  shell  is  strengthened  by  solder- 
ing it  to  a  backing  of  an  alloy  composed  of  only  five 
parts  of  antimony  to  one  hundred  of  lead.  In  order 
to  obtain  a  good  adherence,  the  copper  shell  is  care- 
fully cleaned  in  hot  caustic  lye,  and  its  back  is 
brushed  with  a  solution  of  zinc  in  hydrochloric  acid, 
before  covering  it  with  tin  foil.  By  heating,  the  tin 
covers  the  copper  and  acts  like  an  intermediary 
solder  between  the  electrotype  shell  and  its  backing. 
The  latter  is  put  on  in  a  cast  iron  boat,  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  explained  for  the  preparation  of  stereo- 
types. 

FLEXIBLE    MOULDS. 

The  rotary  printing  presses  require  stereotypes 
curved  to  fit  the  moving  drums.  To  produce  these 
the  flat  form  filled  with  the  ordinary  types  is  oiled, 
and  covered  with  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  fine 
tissue  or  bank  note  paper,  which  is  pressed  down 
upon  the  letters  by  beating  it  with  stiff  brushes. 


LOTTINOPLASTIQUE.  309 

The  paper  has  been  previously  dampened  by  water, 
either  outside  of  the  form  or  upon  it,  by  a  covering 
of  wet  cloth.  The  thin  paper  is  backed  by  several 
other  layers  of  porous  and  coarser  paper,  also  beaten 
in  with  the  brush,  and  the  last  covering  is  of  stiff 
paper.  Sometimes  a  stiffening  of  whiting  and  starch 
in  water  is  laid  between  the  last  two  papers. 

The  paper  mould  is  then  allowed  to  dry  at  a 
moderate  heat,  under  a  slight  pressure  ;  but,  if  it  be 
necessary  to  work  rapidly,  the  mould  is  prepared 
upon  a  hot  form,  and  its  drying  is  completed  upon  a 
steam  table  and  under  screw  pressure.  lu  this  case, 
cloths  are  interposed  between  the  paper  mould  and 
the  press.  When  dry,  the  paper  moulds  are  thor- 
oughly brushed  over  with  plumbago,  or  talc,  or 
finely  powdered  borax.  Then  they  are  fitted  in  an 
iron  casting  box,  and  the  type  metal  is  poured  in. 
The  cooling  of  the  metal  is  hastened  by  throwing 
water  upon  the  box.  With  proper  care,  the  same 
paper  mould  may  be  used  for  several  casts. 


LOTTINOPLASTIQUE. 

Lottinoplastique  is  the  method  employed  by  its 
author,  Mr.  Lottin  de  Laval,  who,  from  1835  to 
about  1846,  took  paper  moulds  of  inscriptions,  basso- 
relievos,  etc  ,  of  antique  monuments,  in  his  travels  in 
Italy,  Sicily,  Kurdistan,  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Egypt. 
His  results  are  certainly  remarkable  in  the  fact  that 
he  was  able  to  pack  more  than  ten  thousand  square 
feet  of  paper  moulds  in  a  box  about  five  feet  long, 
three  feet  wide,  and  two  feet  high.  We  may  surmise 
what  would  have  been  the  volume  and  cost  of  traus- 


310         MOULDER'S    AND    FOUNDER'S   POCKET  GUIDE. 

portation  of  such  moulds  if  they  had  been  made  of 
plaster  of  Paris.  We  will  now  examine  Mr.  Lottin's 
method  as  he  describes  it. 

If  the  object  to  be  moulded  is  of  wood,  it  should 
receive  first  a  light  coat  of  linseed  oil  or  other  oil  at 
hand,  in  order  to  prevent  the  gluing  of  the  paper  to 
the  pattern,  should  glue  or  any  other  adhesive  sub- 
stance be  on  the  wood.  If  the  pattern  be  of  stone, 
powerfully  heated  by  the  sun,  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly wet  with  a  sponge,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
immediate  adherence  of  the  paper. 

Two  kinds  of  paper  are  employed.  For  the  first 
layers  upon  the  pattern,  Mr.  Lottin  prefers  a  yellow- 
ish-gray paper  with  very  little  size  in  it.  The  second 
kind  is  coarser,  and  without  size,  for  repairing  the 
fractures.  The  latter  paper  may  be  cheap,  but  it 
must  be  composed  of  a  felted,  pliable  fibre,  which  will 
bend  and  break  under  the  brush. 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  to  mould  a  basso- 
relievo.  Apply  the  paper,  thoroughly  wetted  in  a 
basin  of  water,  upon  the  pattern,  beginning  at  the 
highest  parts,  and  gently  press  it  down  with  the 
brush.  The  next  sheet  will  partly  overlap  the  for- 
mer, and  will  be  treated  in  the  same  manner.  When 
the  pattern  is  entirely  covered,  renew  the  operation 
with  a  second  layer  of  paper,  and,  if  required,  with  a 
third.  Then  beat  down  the  paper  again  with  the 
brush,  and  cover  the  breaks  with  new  pieces  of  paper 
folded  in  two  or  three,  and  cement  the  whole  with 
the  second  quality  of  paper,  thoroughly  damp,  and 
which,  being  porous  and  without  size,  is  transformed 
into  paste  under  the  action  of  the  brush.  The  deeply 
cut  portions  of  the  pattern  are  plentifully  supplied 


LOTT1NOPLASTIQUE  31 1 

with  this  paste,  which  may  be  compressed  by  the 
fingers,  or  spatulas,  where  the  brush  does  not  reach. 

When  the  paper  covering  is  complete,  wet  it  with 
a  sponge,  taking  care  that  no  water  penetrates  be- 
tween the  paper  and  the  pattern.  Then,  with  a  flat 
brush,  lay  on  a  coat  of  flour  paste,  thoroughly  boiled 
in  water,  holding  a  certain  quantity  of  sulphate  of 
alumina. 

The  mould  will  be  rendered  considerably  stiffer  if 
the  facilities  at  hand  allow  of  the  addition  to  the 
above  paste  of  some  finely  powdered  whiting.  Lastly, 
put  on  a  finishing  layer  of  paper,  and  press  it  down 
thoroughly  with  the  brush,  and  lay  over  it  a  coat  uf 
thin  glue.  The  mould  is  finished,  and  it  is  allowed  to 
dry,  upon  the  pattern  preferably,  otherwise  in  the 
shade.  As  they  begin  to  dry,  the  moulds  separate 
from  the  pattern,  and  the  wind  may  carry  them  away. 
This  is  prevented  by  applying  a  coat  of  very  diluted 
flour  paste  on  the  periphery  of  the  pattern.  Glue 
may  be  prepared  by  boiling  the  feet  of  sheep,  goats, 
etc. 

When  the  moulds  are  perfectly  dry  and  separated 
from  the  pattern,  they  are  made  waterproof,  prefer- 
ably with  boiled  linseed  oil,  or  with  raw  linseed  oil 
in  which  yellow  wax  has  been  melted.  If  these  sub- 
stances cannot  be  had,  then  the  operator  will  use  the 
oil  of  the  country,  or  butter,  or  the  fat  of  animals, 
laid  on  hot,  and  further  dried  before  the  fire  or  under 
the  sun. 

The  moulds  presenting  too  great  a  surface  for 
packing,  are  cut  at  appropriate  places,  after  leaving 
check  marks. 

Before  using  these  moulds  for  obtaining  plaster 


312     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

casts,  it  is  strongly  recommended  to  render  them 
still  more  impervious,  by  heating  them  thoroughly 
before  a  clear  fire,  or  in  an  oven,  and  laying  on  the 
inside  and  outside  a  coat  of  the  following  hot  mix- 
ture, and  drying  again. 

Drying  (boiled)  linseed  oil 50  > 

Yellow  wax ft  >•  parts  by  weight. 

Essence  of  turpentine 5) 

The  older  these  moulds  are,  the  better  they  will 
stand  the  wear  of  casting  plaster  in  them. 

It  may  happen  that  the  adherence  of  the  paper 
sheets  is  not  complete  at  some  places.  The  repair  is 
made  only  at  the  time  of  takiug  the  cast,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Give  alight  coat  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
with  i  of  boiled  oil,  to  the  inside  of  the  mould,  and 
then  lift  the  loose  portions  and  smear  them  with  flour 
paste.  Press  down  with  the  fingers,  and  make  the 
plaster  cast  immediately. 

Jf,  from  irregular  drying,  the  mould  presents  any 
folds,  it  is  slightly  dampened  with  a  sponge.  A  few 
minutes  after,  the  mixture  of  raw  with  one-sixth  of 
boiled  linseed  oil  is  laid  on,  the  plaster  cast  is  taken, 
and,  after  drying,  the  folds  will  have  entirely  disap- 
peared. 

Such  light  moulds  will  not  stand  the  weight  of  a 
large  mass  of  plaster,  without  having  their  backs 
supported  by  sand,  ashes,  or  plaster  itself;  but  this  is 
easily  managed.  Other  substances  may  be  employed 
for  the  casts,  such  as  Roman  cement,  gilder's  paste, 
etc.,  etc. 


GUTTA-PKRCHA    MOULDS.  313 

GUTTA-PERCHA    MOULDS   FOB    ELECTRO-PLATERS. 

Gutta-percha  is  another  substance  often  employed 
by  electro  platers  for  obtaining  moulds  of  patterns 
somewhat  undercut,  especially  if  the  gutta-percha  is 
removed  still  warm  and  yielding.  If  allowed  to 
become  entirely  cold,  the  separation  of  the  undercut 
parts  will  be  difficult,  some  portion  of  the  mould  or  of 
the  pattern  will  have  to  give  way.  Another  prop- 
erty of  gutta-percha  is  to  shrink  considerably  when 
allowed  to  become  cold  naturally  ;  but  if  the  mould  is 
rapidly  chilled  in  cold  water,  it  will  harden  without 
much  contraction. 

Gutta-percha  is  rarely  employed  pure.  It  is  mixed 
with  one-fifth,  to  at  most,  one-third  of  linseed  oil,  or 
tallow,  or  lard,  in  order  to  impart  to  it  enough  soft- 
ness to  be  kneaded  with  the  fingers  while  tepid.  It 
is  possible  to  employ  pure  gutta,  when  the  pattern  al- 
lows of  a  heavy  pressure  being  put  upon  it,  for  in- 
stance, steel  and  copper-plate  engravings.  But,  as  a 
rule,  the  proportion  of  foreign  substances  should  in- 
crease as  the  practicable  pressure  decreases.  The 
mixture  of  gutta  (cut  into  small  pieces)  with  oil,  tal- 
lo\v,  etc.,  is  effected  in  a  metallic  vessel  over  a  mod- 
erate fire.  When,  after  stirring,  the  mass  emits 
bubbles  of  gas,  it  is  poured  into  cold  water,  and 
immediately  kneaded  with  the  hands  so  as  to  secure 
homogeneity. 

If  the  pattern  is  not  very  deeply  cut,  and  if  we 
have  the  possibility  of  applying  a  considerable  pres- 
sure, the  sheet  of  gutta-percha  is  softened  a  little  be- 
fore a  fire,  and  then  applied  upon  the  pattern  and 
pressed.  While  still  tepid,  the  mould  is  afterwards 
27 


314       MOULDER'S   AND   FOUNDER'S  POCKET    GUIDE. 

removed  and  plunged  into  cold  water,  in  order  to  set 
it  and  prevent  further  contraction. 

We  may  soften  gutta-percha  in  warm  water,  hat 
there  is  danger  of  some  of  the  water  remaining  be- 
tween the  pattern  and  the  mould  On  that  account 
it  is  preferable  to  soften  the  material  before  a  fire, 
or  in  a  stove  arranged  for  the  purpose. 

In  the  case  of  a  more  deeply-cut  pattern  requiring 
or  able  to  bear  a  gentle  pressure  only,  we  soften  by 
heat  the  gutta-p(  rclia  to  the  degree  at  which  it  may 
be  pressed  within  the  recesses  of  the  pattern  by  the 
fingers,  which  are  kept  oiled.  After  removing  the 
still  tepid  gutta  mould,  dip  it  into  cold  w;ihvr.  There 
will  be  less  danger  of  distortion  by  contraction  if  all 
the  parts  of  the  gutta-percha  mould  are  of  about  the 
same  thickness. 

Another  method  is  without  pressure,  but  by  fusion 
of  the  material.  The  pattern  is  laid  in  a  tray,  for  in- 
stance, and  a  ball  of  gutta-percha  is  put  in  the  middle 
and  on  the  top.  The  whole  being  put  in  a  stove 
heated  to  the  proper  point,  the  gutta  melts  by  degrees 
and  finally  covers  the  whole  pattern.  The  ball  shape 
given  to  the  material  is  for  the. purpose  of  pushing 
away  the  air  as  the  melting  goes  ou. 

GELATIN    FOR    MOULDS. 

Another  material  which  allows  of  the  direct  mould- 
ing of  quite  deeply  undercut  patterns  is  gelatin,  pure, 
or  mixed  with  boiled  linseed  oil,  as  in  printing 
rollers.  For  a  single  plaster  cast,  gelatin  jelly  alone 
is  sufficient ;  but  if  several  casts  are  necessary,  an 
addition  of  linseed  oil  will  enable  the  mould  to  stand 
the  action  of  dampness  better. 


GELATIN  FOR  MOULDS.  315 

Good  glue  is  covered  with  water,  and  is  allowed  to 
swell  for  twenty-four  hours.  Then  it  is  heated  upon 
a  steam  or  water  bath,  and,  if  necessary,  water  and 
linseed  oil  are  added.  The  proportions  of  these  sub- 
stance" must  be  such  that  the  glue  becomes  a  stiff 
jelly  as  soon  as  cold.  The  patterns  are  slightly  oiled 
before  they  are  covered  with  the  liquid  glue.  As 
soon  as  set,  the  gelatin  mould  is  removed,  and  is 
ready  for  producing  a  new  plaster  cast.  If  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  cast  are  considerable,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  stiffen  the  back  of  the  gelatin  mould  by 
plaster  of  Paris,  or  otherwise.  Should  it  happen  that 
there  is  some  difficulty  in  separating  the  mould  from 
the  cast,  both  may  be  left  for  some-time  in  a  damp 
place,  which  will  soften  the  gelatin.  Dipping  in 
water  may  be  resorted  to,  if  the  mould  has  done  its 
work  and  is  not  to  be  used  again. 

The  metal  moulder  may  ask  of  what  use  to  him  are 
such  jelly-like  moulds.  We  would  answer,  that  he 
may  be  required  to  produce  a  curved  basso-relievo  or 
an  ornament,  the  patterns  of  which  are  flat.  We  will 
take  a  gelatin  mould  of  the  flat  pattern,  then  curve 
the  mould  to  the  desired  degree,  and  from  it  obtain  a 
curved  plaster  cast  which  will  be  his  pattern  for  sand 
moulding. 

He  may  also  desire  to  reproduce  a"  pattern  of  a  re- 
duced size.  The  gelatin,  in  drying,  contracts  in 
every  direction  without  cracking.  Therefore,  the 
glue  mould,  when  dry,  will  be  smaller  than  the  for- 
mer pattern,  and  will  give  a  cast  reduced  in  size. 

There  are  other  ways  of  increasing  the  preserving 
qualities  of  glue  jelly  without  the  addition  of  linseed 
oil.  (1)  Dissolve  two  hundred  parts  of  dry  glue  in 


316     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

the  proper  proportion  of  water,  and  before  pouring  on 
the  pattern,  add  and  mix  thoroughly  four  parts  of 
tannic  acid  and  four  parts  of  powdered  rock  candy 
(2)  A  mould  having  been  made  with  gelatin  alone,  a 
solution  of  water  holding  10  per  cent,  of  bichromate 
of  potassa  is  poured  upon  it,  and  after  draining,  the 
mould  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun. 

CONTRACTION  OR  SHRINKAGE  OF  METALS  AND 
ALLOYS. 

All  metals  and  nearly  all  alloys  contract  in  cool- 
ing, and  this  contraction  or  shrinkage  varies  with  the 
temperature  of  the  molten  metal,  the  shape  of  the 
mould,  etc.  Cast  iron,  for  instance,  expands  at  the 
moment  it  congeals,  and  then  shrinks  in  passing  from 
the  red  to  the  black  heat.  The  most  carburized  or 
gray  pig  iron  shrinks  the  least,  (less  than  one  per 
cent) ;  the  most  white  metal  contracts  the  most, 
(about  two  per  cent).  Taking  the  range  of  gray 
irons  used  in  foundries  for  moulding,  the  average 
shrinkage  is  about  one  per  cent.  Large  heavy  pieces 
will  contract  j^,  that  is  y1^  of  an  inch  per  foot;  the 
calculation  for  small  articles  is  ^ff  or  £  of  an  inch  per 
foot.  For  brass  work,  shrinkage  varies  between  j::tl 
and  \  inch  per  fpot. 

Patterns  are  therefore  made  larger  than  the  article 
to  be  cast ;  but,  for  those  smaller  than  four  niches,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  provide  for  the  shrinkage,  since 
the  rapping  to  which  the  patterns  are  subjected,  en- 
larges the  mould  slightly.  In  small  castings,  which 
must  be  very  accurate  as  to  size,  it  is  even  necessary 
to  provide  for  the  expansion  of  the  mould  by  the  rap- 
ping. 


CONTRACTION   OP    METALS.  317 

Shrinkage  not  only  diminishes  the  size  of  the  pat- 
tern, but  may  also  modify  its  shape.  A  flat  plate, 
moulded  in  sand  equally  rammed  all  over,  aud  as 
thick  in  the  cope  as  in  the  drag,  will  cool  and  shrink 
equally,  and  therefore  will  not  be  distorted.  Ou  the 
other  hand,  let  us  suppose  that  the  thiekuess  of  sand 
in  the  cope  is  less  than  in  the  drag,  the  result  will  be 
that  the  upper  side  of  the  plate  will  cool  off  more  rap- 
idly than  the  under  side.  The  metal  of  the  lower 
part  will  shrink  last,  and  bracing  itself  against  the 
already  set  part,  will,  by  its  contraction,  cause  the  up- 
per surface  to  become  convex. 

Let  us  now  pass  to  a  plate  with  ribs  underneath, 
which  are  thicker  than  the  plate  itself.  The  ribs, 
holding  more  metal,  will  cool  last,  aud  by  their 
shrinkage  will  pull  down  towards  them  the  top 
plate,  the  upper  surface  of  which  will  become  convex. 
The  same  result  will  occur,  but  to  a  less  extent,  when 
the  ribs  are  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  plate. 
There  is  more  thickness  and  more  metal,  where  ribs 
and  plate  meet,  therefore  the  shrinkage  will  take 
place  last  at  that  place,  and  there  will  be  another 
pulling  down  of  the  periphery  of  the  plate.  On  the 
other  hand,  should  the  ribs  be  thinner  than  the  plate, 
the  former  will  set  first,  and  the  plate  by  shrinking 
last  will  pull  them  upwards,  thus  producing  a  cou- 
cavity  on  top  of  the  plate.  It  is  to  obviate  these  de- 
fects due  to  shrinkage  that  some  portions  of  castings 
are  uncovered  immediately  after  the  metal  is  con- 
gealed, in  order  to  cool  the  thicker  parts  as  rapidly  as 
the  thinner  ones. 

A  straight  bar,  wedge  shape,  if  allowed  to  cool 
naturally  in  sand,  will  always  become  curved.  The 
27* 


318    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

thin  edge  sets  first,  and  the  thick  one  by  shrinking 
last  will  bend  the  former  convex  shape,  while  the 
thick  edge  will  be  concave.  The  remedy,  therefore, 
is  to  uncover  the  thick  edge. 

A  gutter,  or  two  plates  meeting  at  an  angle, 
will  always  become  curved  in  their  length  if  the 
greater  amount  of  metal  at  the  angle  is  not  cooled 
more  rapidly  by  removing  the  sand. 

This  method  of  uncovering  is  not  always  possible 
or  entirely  effective.  In  such  case,  the  pattern  is 
modified  so  as  to  correct  the  inevitable  effects  of 
shrinkage,  either  in  size  or  in  shape. 

TABLE    OP    THE    SHRINKAGES    OF    CASTINGS. 

The  following  table  gives  the  shrinkages  of  various 
kinds  of  castings : 

In  locomotive  cylinders ^g-  inch  in  a  foot 

In  pipes ^      "         "      " 

Girders,  beams,  etc ^  inch  in  15  inches 

Engine  beams,  connecting-rods  . .  £      "    "16       "  ' 
In  large  cylinders,  say  70  inches 
diameter,    10    feet   stroke,    the 
contraction  of  diameter  is  about  |      "  at  top. 
contraction  of  diameter  is  about  ^      "  at  bottom. 

Shrinkage  of  length  is £      "  in  16  inches. 

In  thin  brass |      "in    9  iucb«s. 

thick  brass £      "  in  10       " 

zinc T5g-     "  in  12       " 

lead  (according  to  purity)  T3e  to  ^  "  in  12  " 
copper  "  "  "  Xto^y"inli  " 
tin  "  "  "  -  TVto^ "  ic  12  " 
silver about  £  "  ia  12 

The  above  values  vary  slightly  with  the  shape  of 
the  pattern,  the  amount  of  ramming,  the  fluidity  and 
heat  of  the  metal  at  pouring  time,  and  also  with  tho 


WEIGHTS   OF   CASTINGS    FROM   PATTERNS.        319 


nature  of  the  mould,  whether  of  dry  or  green  sand, 
or  loam.  The  practice  of  a  foundry  varies  somewhat 
from  that  of  another  establishment.  The  only  agree- 
ment is  in  the  averages. 

WEIGHTS   OF  CASTINGS   FROM   PATTERNS. 

If  it  be  desired  to  make  an  approximate  guess  of 
the  weight  of  a  casting  from  the  pattern  at  hand,  the 
latter  may  be  weighed,  and  the  corresponding  weight 
of  the  casting  will  be  found  in  the  following  tables. 
It  is  evident  that  account  should  be  taken  of  the  core 
prints,  and  battens,  and  other  extraneous  parts  on  the 
pattern,  and  that  their  weights  should  be  deducted. 

The  first  table  is  from  Rose's  "Pattern  Maker's 
Assistant,"  and  probably  agrees  with  American  prac- 
tice and  woods  used  for  patterns.  The  second  table 
is  of  European  origin,  and  discrepancies  may  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  difference  of  densities  of  the  ma- 
terials. European  woods  are  generally  more  dense 
than  the  corresponding  ones  of  America. 

JWILL  WEIGH    WHEN  CAST  IN 


Q 

N 

_^    r 

A  PATTERN  WEIGHING  ONE 

P 

5' 

-         :> 

POUND,  MADE    OF 

3 

1 

-     Z 

2 
a 

a 

'^ 

Ibs 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Mahogany  —  Nassau  

10.7 
12  9 

10.4  12.8 

1  9  ?  1  ^  * 

12.2 

~\A.R 

2.5 
15 

"             Spanish         

85    82  10  I     9  T 

9  9 

Pine  —  red 

19  5  12  1  14  9 

li  -? 

11  £ 

"        white  

lfi.7  16  1  198   19     19  fi 

"         vellow  

14.1  13.  (5  16.7 

1(5.     l(5.n 

320    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 


WILL   WEIGH   WHEN  CAST  IN 


A  PATTERN  WEIGH- 
ING ONE  POUND, 
MADE  OF 

Cast-iron 

W 

P 

1 

T5 
<t> 

w 

•-J 

0 

a 

N 
O> 

Bell  or 
gun  metal 

N 
3 
o 

14 

15  8 

16  7 

16  3 

17  1 

13  5 

Oak 

q 

10  1 

10  4 

103 

10  9 

8  6 

Beech      

9  7 

10  9 

11  4 

11  3 

11  9 

9  1 

Linden 

13  4 

15  1 

15  7 

15  5 

16  3 

12  9 

Pear  

10  9 

11.5 

11.9 

11  8 

12.4 

9  8 

Birch           

in  i; 

11  9 

12.3 

12  2 

12  9 

10.2 

Alder    

19  8 

143 

14  9 

14  7 

15  5 

122 

Mahogany 

11  7 

13  2 

13  7 

13  5 

14  2 

11  2 

Brass  

0  84 

0.95 

0.99 

0.98 

0  81 

Tin  with  £  to  £  or 
lead.              

0  89 

1 

1.03 

1  03 

1  12 

0  85 

Lead... 

0.64 

0.72 

074 

0.74 

0.78 

0.61 

MISCELLANEOUS    PROCESSES    AND    RECEIPTS. 

When  it  is  desired  to  give  a  smooth  surface  to  largo 
castings  in  green  sand,  the  dusting  with  charcoal  dust 
is  dispensed  with.  Instead  of  that  the  print  is 
painted  over  by  means  of  a  brush  with  a  mixture  in 
water  of  £  plastic  clay  and  £  charcoal  dust.  A  fur- 
ther polish  may  be  given  with  an  iron  tool. 

A  firm  and  fusible  wax  for  ornaments  and  inscrip- 
tions put  on  loam  moulds  of  bells,  for  instance,  is  pre- 
pared as  follows :  Melt  at  a  gentle  heat  a  mixture 
of  80  parts  wax,  13  white  pitch,  4  fat  and  3  poppy 
oil.  After  a  thorough  stirring,  filter  through  wool 
flannel. 


MISCELLANEOUS   PROCESSES    AND    RECEIPTS.     321 

The  excess  of  carbon  in  too  highly  graphitic  pig 
metal  may  be  burned  off  by  the  oxygen  of  pure  and 
rich  iron  ore,  projected  in  fine  powder  through  the 
tuyere  of  the  cupola,  one  or  two  hours  before  tapping 
the  metal. 

Pig  metal  holding  about  '2%  of  copper  gives  sharp 
castings  which  are  dense  and  soft,  if  there  has  been 
no  chilling.  The  outside  coat  is  frequently  of  nearly 
pure  copper. 

Sharp  castings  are  also  obtained  from  cast  iron 
holding  too  much  phosphorus  to  be  good  for  pud- 
dling or  for  castings  requiring  strength.  Such  metal 
is  very  good  for  ornaments  having  no  strains  to  bear. 

When  the  gases  arising  from  a  charcoal  dust  part- 
ing are  to  be  avoided,  we  may  use  sifted  ashes  instead. 
Sometimes  soap  and  ashes  are  employed,  but  soap 
will  produce  gaseous  products. 

If  very  undercut  plaster  patterns  are  covered  with 
very  strongly  rammed  sand  in  metallic  asks,  they 
may  be  easily  dostroved  by  calcining  the  whole  to 
the  point  when  the  plaster  will  fall  into  powder. 

A  mastic  for  filling  small  holes  in  wooden  patterns, 
is  composed  of  50  parts  resin,  40  whiting,  7  tallow, 
and  3  yellow  wax. 

Another  mixture  for  wax  pattern**,  is  composed  of 
2  parts  of  yellow  wax  and  1  of  resin. 

Thin  castings  are  often  chilled  by  the  mould,  en- 
tirely or  in  some  parts  only.  In  order  to  remove 
their  brittleness,  and  allow  them  to  be  worked  with 
the  file  and  tools,  they  are  annealed  in  furnaces.  The 
oxidization  of  their  surface  is  prevented  by  heating 
the  castings  enough  to  bear  handling,  and  covering 


322     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

their  surfaces  with  coal  tar,  or  with  a  mixture  of  lamp- 
black and  linseed  oil.  They  are  then  put  in  the  fur- 
nace, which  is  gradually  brought  to  a  red  heat,  and 
slowly  cooled.  We  have  frequently  annealed  small 
castings  in  the  coals  of  an  ordinary  kitchen  -fire,  with- 
out previously  painting  them  over.  After  half  an 
hour  of  a  red  heat,  followed  by  slow  cooling,  the 
oxidization  was  superficial  only. 

Of  late  years,  emery  wheels  have  come  into  con- 
siderable use  for  polishing  and  planing  rough  cast- 
ings. The  wheel  is  generally  fixed  in  a  horizontal  01 
vertical  position,  and  the  work  is  brought  up  to  it. 
In  other  cases,  the  casting  is  stationary,  and  the  re- 
volving wheel  is  raised,  lowered,  or  inclined  by  hand 
in  every  position  by  means  of  an  apparatus  which  is 
the  counterpart  of  the  rotary  brush  used  in  certain 
barber  shops.  Circular  saws  are  also  made  to  move 
on  the  same  principle. 

MALLEABLE    IRON    CASTINGS. 

"Malleable  iron  "  is  the  term  employed  to  desig- 
nate those  castings,  the  brittleness  of  which  has  been 
partly  or  entirely  removed  by  the  operation  of  "  an- 
nealing," which  consists  in  burning  off  the  whole  or 
a  part  of  the  carbon  combined  with  the  metal  from 
which  the  castings  were  made. 

Cast  iron,  disregarding  certain  other  substances 
combined  with  it,  is  essentially  a  compound  of  iron 
and  carbon,  in  which  the  carbon  is  partly  combined 
with  the  metal,  and  partly  mixed  with  it ;  in  the 
latter  case,  it  is  said  to  exist  in  the  "graphitic 
state." 

Combined  carbon,  on  account  of  its  atomic  state  of 


MALLEABLE    IRON   CASTINGS.  323 

division,  is  more  easily  removed  from  the  metal, 
either  by  the  action  of  oxidizing  agents,  such  as 
metallic  oxides,  and  the  oxidizing  flame  of  a  puddling 
furnace,  etc.,  or  by  readily  combining  with  hydrogen 
and  formiug  hydrocarbides,  which  we  perceive  when 
we  dissolve  cast  iron  in  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid,  for  instance.  On  the  other  hand,  graphitic 
carbon  is  very  hard  to  burn,  and  requires  the  pro- 
tracted action  of  oxidizing  influences. 

From  the  states  in  which  carbon  exists  in  cast  iron, 
this  metal  has  been  classified  into  three  principal 
subdivisions:  Gray  metal,  in  which  the  light  color 
is,  as  it  were,  concealed  by  a  multitude  of  graphitic 
laminae ;  White  metal,  where  the  carbon  is  in  the 
combined  state  and  unseen ;  Mottled  cast  iron,  in 
which  most  of  the  carbon  is  combined,  whereas  that 
in  the  graphitic  state  gives  to  the  metal  the  spotted 
appearance  of  the  trout.  Gray  metal  is  also  called 
Foundry  pig,  and  is  generally  preferred  by  the 
founders  of  ordinary  castings,  because  it  retains  its 
carbon  and  fusibility  longer  than  the  other  kinds. 
White  metal  is  also  called  Forge  pig,  because  it  is 
preferred  for  puddling,  since  it  loses  its  carbon 
more  readily  than  the  gray  metal.  The  inter- 
mediate quality  of  mottled  pig  goes  generally  to  the 
forge. 

From  what  we  have  said  about  the  two  states  in 
which  carbon  exists  in  cast  iron,  and  the  greater 
facility  of  its  removal  in  one  than  in  the  other,  we 
may  rightly  infer  that  white  cast  iron  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred for  malleable  castings.  Another  reason  for 
doing  so,  is  the  appearance  of  the  castings.  Indeed, 
let  us  suppose  an  article  made  of  gray  metal,  rich  in 


321    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

graphitic  carbon  ;  if,  after  a  protracted  heating  in  con- 
tact with  oxidizing  substances  we  have  succeeded  in 
burning  off  the  graphite,  the  place  it  occupied  in  the 
metal  will  be  empty,  and  the  article  will  be  porous, 
and  will  show  it.  On  the  contrary,  the  article  cast 
from  white  metal,  where  the  combined  carbon  is  not 
visible,  will  appear  with  the  same  sharpness  of  shape 
and  smoothness  of  surface  after  as  before  the  anneal- 
ing process. 

Therefore,  and  provided  the  metal  employed  con- 
tains sufficient  combined  carbon  to  insure  the  fluidity 
necessary  for  sharp  castings,  white  pig  iron  is  to  be 
preferred  to  gray  metal  for  the  manufacture  of  "  mal- 
leable iron  "  castings,  because  the  decarburization  is 
more  complete  and  rapid,  the  appearance  more  pleas- 
ing, and  the  quality  of  the  resulting  metal  better. 

Carbon  is  removed  from  the  cast  iron  by  submit- 
ting it,  at  a  certain  temperature,  to  the  action  of  sub- 
stances holding  oxygen,  and  the  resulting  combina- 
tion will  be  carbonic  oxide,  very  possibly  mixed  with 
a  certain  proportion  of  carbonic  acid.  Air  will  cause 
the  carbon  to  burn,  but  its  action  is  too  energetic, 
and  is  not  well  under  control.  The  substances  pre- 
ferred for  the  purpose  are  the  magnetic  scales  of 
oxide  of  iron,  produced  by  blacksmiths  and  at  rolling 
mills,  and  iron  ores  or  peroxides  of  iron,  which  fulfil 
the  requirements  of  cheapness,  with  regularity  and 
facility  of  working. 

We  must,  however,  remark  that  these  oxides  should 
be,  as  far  as  practicable,  free  from  silica  and  earths 
which,  at  the  temperature  of  the  annealing  furnace, 
will  fuse  and  form  a  slag  or  cinder,  preventing  the 
oxidizing  action,  especially  if  the  castings  should 


MALLEABLE   IRON    CASTINGS.  325 

become  coated  with  it.  For  this  reason  smithy  scales 
are  preferred,  although  they  contain  less  oxygen  than 
the  ores ;  but  the  latter  are  with  difficulty  found 
entirely  free  from  the  above  fluxing  impurities. 

There  is,  up  to  a  certain  point,  an  analogy  in  the 
mode  of  operation  between  cementing  steel  and  an- 
nealing cast  iron.  In  either  case,  the  metals  are 
submitted  to  a  protracted  heat  in  air-tight  vessels, 
filled  with  the  reacting  substances,  and  the  transfor- 
mation takes  place  from  the  surface  to  the  centre. 
But  here  the  similarity  ceases ;  in  one  case  the  carbon 
of  the  charcoal  used  penetrates  the  iron  bar  to  form 
steel ;  in  the  other,  the  oxygen  of  the  surrounding 
oxide  penetrates  the  cast  iron,  combines  with  its 
carbon,  and  escapes  in  the  gaseous  form. 

It  is  easily  understood  that  the  thinner  the  casting, 
the  more  rapid  will  be  its  transformation  into  mallea- 
ble metal.  Thicker  castings,  if  the  heat  has  not 
been  sufficiently  high  or  protracted,  will  exhibit  in 
their  fracture  a  kind  of  gamut  of  the  graduation  of 
the  transformation.  The  external  parts,  which  have 
been  thoroughly  decarburized,  are  gray,  easily  filed 
and  drilled,  and  have  lost  their  brittleness ;  and  pro- 
ceeding towards  the  centre  (which  we  suppose  not 
to  be  decarburized),  we  see  the  qualities  of  color, 
softness,  etc.,  gradually  diminishing,  until  we  find 
the  previous  white  metal. 

For  some  reason,  not  well  understood,  it  would 
appear  that  a  temperature  too  high  or  prolonged,  will 
harden  surfaces  already  softened.  Possibly,  this  may 
be  due  to  a  superficial  skin  of  magnetic  oxide,  hard 
and  brittle,  or  to  a  coating  of  fluxed  impurities.  At 
all  events,  castings  not  too  thick,  of  a  good  metal,  and 
28 


326     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDEU'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

thoroughly  decarburized,  may  be  considered  chemic- 
ally as  iron  without  fibre,  and  a  fibre  may  be  imparted 
to  them  by  rolling  or  hammering.  Indeed,  we  have 
seen  such  malleable  castings  bent  double,  while  cold, 
without  breaking,  and  without  any  previous  conden- 
sation under  the  hammer.  Their  ring,  or  sound, 
very  nearly  approximates  to  that  of  wrought  iron. 

The  manufacture  of  malleable  iron  castings  is  older 
than  is  generally  thought,  although  the  knowledge  of 
the  true  principles  on  which  it  is  based  dates  from  the 
more  recent  period  of  the  establishment  of  chemical 
science.  In  his  work  on  the  "Art  of  Converting 
Wrought  Iron  into  Steel,  and  of  Softening  Cast-iron" 
(Vart  de  convirtir  lefer  forge  en  acier,  et  Vart  d'adou- 
cir  lefer  fondu),  published  in  1722,  Reaumur  gives 
the  numerous  experiments  by  which  he  succeeded  in 
producing  malleable  iron  castings,  which  had  already 
been  made  some  twenty  years  before,  but  in  a  secret 
manner. 

At  the  epoch  in  which  Reaumur  lived,  the  true  era 
of  chemistry  had  not  yet  begun,  the  relations  of  car- 
bon to  iron  in  pig  metal  were  not  known,  and  the 
various  degrees  of  hardness  and  appearance  in  cast- 
iron  were  attributed  to  the  presence  of  various  impu- 
rities, sulphur  especially.  After  many  experiments 
with  all  kinds  of  substances  and  salts — the  results  of 
which  were  noted  with  a  remarkable  acuteness  of 
observation — Reaumur  succeeded  in  his  purpose  with 
three  different  mixtures.  Having  observed  that  a 
plate  of  cast-iron,  exposed  for  a  long  time  to  the  direct 
action  of  a  fire,  was  covered  with  a  coat  of  black  and 
red  oxide,  and  that  the  metal  underneath  had  become 
softened  (malleable),  he  collected  such  oxide  for  the 


MALLEABLE   IRON   CASTINGS.  £27 

purpose  of  packing  with  it  small  bars  of  white  cast- 
iron,  and  after  heating  them  in  covered  crucibles,  he 
obtained  a  perfectly  malleable  iron  (see  page  472  of 
the  above  named  work).  His  other  mixtures  were 
powdered  limestone  and  charcoal,  and  charcoal  with 
calcined  bone-dust.  The  first  mixture  is  evidently 
that  used  at  the  present  time ;  the  second  may  be 
explained  by  the  oxidizing  action,  at  a  certain  temper- 
ature of  the  carbonic  acid  disengaged,  which  parts 
with  an  atom  of  oxygen  (CO2 +  0  =  2  CO)  com- 
bining with  the  carbon  of  the  cast-iron,  and  which 
becomes  carbonic  oxide.  In  the  third  case,  we  may 
surmise  that  the  carbon  was  burned  out  by  the  air  of 
the  fire-place,  penetrating  through  the  interstices  of 
the  cast-iron  plates  forming  the  boxes  in  which  the 
metal  and  the  mixture  were  packed.  The  air  was 
prevented  from  acting  violently  by  the  mass  of  bone- 
dust  and  powdered  charcoal  with  which  the  articles 
were  surrounded.  We  do  not  believe  that  the  tem- 
perature was  sufficiently  high  to  decompose  the  bone- 
dust,  even  in  presence  of  the  charcoal.  The  furnace 
employed  was  of  brick,  and  square,  and  divided  by 
vertical  partitions  of  cast-iron  plates,  between  two  of 
which  were  packed  the  castings  and  the  mixture,  and 
around  which  were  flues  for  the  circulation  of  the 
gases  of  the  fireplace. 

However  imperfect  these  dispositions  may  be,  when 
compared  with  the  present  ones,  Reaumur  ascertained 
that  oxides  of  iron  and  cast-iron,  heated  together  in 
closed  vessels,  produced  malleable  iron ;  that  for  mal- 
leable castings  white  is  preferable  to  gray  metal ;  that 
the  castings  previous  to  annealing,  should  be  deprived 
cf  the  adhering  sand,  which  becoming  fluxed,  pre- 


328     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

vented  the  reaction  ;  that  too  protracted  and  too  intense 
a  heat  may  harden  the  castings  again;  and  that  pro- 
perly annealed  articles  may  be  bent,  forged,  welded, 
case-hardened,  and  present  all  the  properties  and  even 
appearance  of  wrought  iron. 

After  having  explained  the  principles  upon  which 
the  industry  of  malleable  iron-casting  is  founded,  and 
given  a  historical  notice  of  the  first  trials  made,  we 
cannot  do  better  than  to  describe  the  actual  processes, 
such  as  are  applied  at  the  Hardware  and  Malleable 
Iron  Works  of  Messrs.  Chas.  W.  Carr,  Jos.  W.  Craw- 
ley,  and  Thos.  Devlin,  successors  to  E.  Hall  Ogden, 
and  whose  store  is  at  307  Arch  Street,  Philadelphia. 

In  this  large  establishment,  where  everything  is 
conducted  with  the  best  order  and  understanding, 
anything  in  the  line  of  ordinary  and  malleable  cast- 
ings for  building  and  cabinet,  carriage  and  saddlery 
hardware,  etc.,  is  made  complete,  from  the  pattern  to 
the  casting,  annealing,  coppering,  adjusting  and 
japanning  of  the  articles.  Indeed,  the  mechanical 
appliances  for  finishing  and  adjusting  different  parts, 
comprise  one  of  the  most  interesting  departments  of 
the  works,  with  their  planing  machines,  lathes, 
punches,  screw-cutting  tools,  grinding  and  polishing 
stones,  and  drills  which  allow  of  the  drilling  of  several 
holes  in  the  same  piece  at  the  same,  and  at  various 
angles. 

The  pig  iron  used  preferably  for  malleable  castings 
is  a  white  charcoal  pig,  and  is  melted  in  cupolas,  or 
in  a  reverberatory  furnace  (Fig.  43).  This  latter 
furnace,  of  which  A  is  the  fire-place,  B  the  hearth,  C 
the  tap-hole,  D  the  flue  towards  the  stack,  and  E  the 
door  through  which  the  impurities  are  removed  from 


MALLEABLE   IRON   CASTINGS. 


329 


the  top  of  the  molten  metal,  consumes  more  fuel,  and 
produces  more  waste  than  the  cupola.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  metal  is  purer,  because  it  is  not  melted  in 

Fig.  43. 


direct  contact  with  the  fuel,  and  does  not  absorb  its 
impurities,   sulphur  especially.      There    is    also  the 
advantage  that,  should  the  metal  contain  too  much 
28* 


330    MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

carbon,  part  of  it  may  be  removed  by  the  oxidizing 
action  of  the  flame. 

Most  of  the  castings  are  made  in  green  sand,  from 
metallic  patterns,  which  insure  a  constancy  of  shape 
and  of  smooth  surfaces. 

The  castings,  which  are  as  brittle  as  glass,  are 
then  put  into  "tumblers,"  which  are  revolving  cylin- 
ders of  cast  iron  with  ribs  inside,  in  which  the  articles 
are  deprived  of  adhering  sand,  and  become  polished 
by  mutual  friction. 

The  cleaned  castings,  intended  for  conversion  into 
malleable  iron,  are  next  packed  close,  with  alternate 
layers  of  powdered  iron  scales  from  rolling  mills,  into 
rectangular  cast  iron  boxes,  D  (Fig.  44),  which 
become  of  a  rather  elliptic  shape,  after  a  certain 
length  of  use,  and  which  can  be  placed  one  upon  top 
of  the  other,  if  need  be,  and  closed  at  the  top  by  a 
mixture  of  sand  and  clay,  which  prevents  contact 
with  the  air,  and  follows  the  settling  of  the  mass. 

Fig.  44  represents  the  disposition  of  the  annealing 
furnace,  which  resembles  those  employed  for  making 
the  bone-black  of  sugar  refineries.  A  is  the  fire-place, 
B  a  flue  conducting  the  flame  into  the  annealing 
chamber,  C  and  D  D  I)  are  the  cast  iron  boxes  filled 
with  the  iron  scales  and  the  articles  to  be  softened. 

Leaving  aside  the  time  necessary  for  raising  the 
temperature,  and  the  cooling  off,  the  articles  are  sub- 
jected for  about  a  week  to  a  white  heat,  not  sufficient, 
however,  to  melt  what  may  still  remain  of  cast  iron. 

After  a  proper  annealing,  the  castings  are  covered 
with  a  film  of  oxide  of  iridescent  colors — the  yellow 
and  azure  blue  predominating — which  resembles  that 
kind  of  Champlaiu  iron  ore  called  peacock,  on  account 
of  its  coloration. 


MALLEABLE    IRON    CASTINGS.  331 

Any  adherent  oxide  is  removed  by  another  passage 
through  the  "tumblers,"  and  the  process  of  malic-a- 
ble iron  making  is  finished.  Any  further  grinding, 

Fig.  44. 


polishing,  boring,  and  adjusting  which  may  be  needed, 
is  made  in  the  same  works. 

The  oxide  of  iron,  or  scales,  employed,  have  parted 


332     MOULDER'S  AND  FOUNDER'S  POCKET  GUIDE. 

with  a  portion  of  their  oxygen  during  the  annealing- 
process,  and  the  loss  is  made  good  by  grinding  the 
scales,  and  rusting  them  with  a  solution  of  sal 
ammoniac  (hydrochlorate  of  ammonia).  It  seems  to 
us  possible  to  do  without  the  expense  of  sal  ammo- 
niac, by  wetting  the  powdered  scales  several  times 
with  water,  stirring  and  drying  them  on  the  top  of 
the  annealing  furnace.  Among  the  products  manu- 
factured by  the  above  mentioned  firm,  we  have 
noticed  hinges,  entirely  of  cast  iron,  and  others  with 
wrought  iron  pivots ;  patent  elastic  washers  for  rail- 
road fish-plates,  which  prevent  the  nut  from  unscrew- 
ing, and  keep  it  tight;  castors  for  furniture,  bolts, 
pulleys  for  cords  of  window  sashes,  keys,  padlocks, 
screw  presses,  carriage  parts,  saddlery  hardware, 
etc.,  etc.  In  fact,  it  would  be  necessary  to  make 
a  catalogue  with  an  index,  of  all  of  the  patterns 
which  were  shown  to  us. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  the  cost  of  malleable  iron 
castings,  since  it -depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the 
size  and  the  quantity  of  the  articles.  We  may  say, 
however,  that  being  given  a  certain  pattern,  the  mal- 
leable iron  castings  will  cost  from  seventy  to  eighty 
per  cent,  more  than  ordinary  castings  from  the  same 
pattern.  This  increase  of  price  is  necessitated  by 
more  labor,  the  consumption  of  fuel  for  annealing, 
greater  cost  of  pig  metal  employed,  etc.,  etc. 

To  sum  up,  malleable  iron  castings  are  useful, 
whenever  equal  strength  of  material  being  not  needed, 
the  cost  in  labor,  if  made  of  wrought  iron,  would  be 
too  great;  or  when  a  casting  is  needed  without  the 
brittleness  of  common  cast  iron.  Scissors,  sewing 
machine  parts,  the  butt  ends  and  guards,  and  many 
28* 


MALLEABLE   IRON    CASTINGS.  333 

other  parts  of  gun  locks,  ornaments,  etc.,  etc.,  are 
made  in  quantities  from  malleable  iron  castings. 
Even  nails,  of  all  sizes,  are  thus  manufactured  in 
England,  and  we  are  disposed  to  believe  that,  if 
made  of  good  metal  and  well  annealed,  they  may  be 
at  least  equal  to  certain  cut-nails  produced  from 
inferior  plate,  and  the  fibre  of  which  has  been  broken 
by  the  concussion  of  the  cutting  machine. 

Oxide  of  zinc  has  been  proposed  as  a  substitute  for 
oxide  of  iron,  under  the  plea  that  the  operation  is 
more  rapid. 


INDEX. 


PAGK. 

Accidents  in  moulding  255 
Accidents,  repairing  271 

PAGE. 

Bags,  linen,  tor  coal  dust,  etc.    30 
Baker's  blower       291 

Air  and  gas  passage  267 
Air  for  combustion  212 
Air  furnace  for  melting  iron 
in  crucibles                        192-193 

Bas-relief  142,  143 
Bath  tub,  to  mould  an  oval..  132 
Battisterio  in  Florence,  doors 
of                                                 137 

Alleghenies,  moulding  sand 
in  the  21 

Beams,  what  to  be  cast  in  188 
Bed  plates  heavy,  for  steam 

Alloys  and  metals,  contrac- 

tion of                     ...  316-319 

Allovs  and  Metals,  table  of 
specific  gravities  of  252 
Alloys  and  metals,  table  of 
tenacities  and  resistances 
of                     .                            251 

Bell  metals  229 
Hell,  .silver,  of  Rouen  229 
Bells,  detects  in  145 
Bells,  moulding  of  143-146 
BellowC                                     30 

Allovs,  casting  of  224 

Bent  pipe,  moulding  a  128-132 

Alloys  melting  in  crucibles..  211 
Alloys  new  280-283 

Bevelled  wheel,  moulding  a.    82 

Alloys  of  copper  228 
Alloys  of  iron  226-228 
Allovs  of  the  precious  metals  228 

Blackening  liquid  75 
Blackening,  mills  for  grind- 
ing                       22 

Alum  casting  176 

Blackenin"  of  iron  casts  247 

Alum  plaster  275 
Aluminum-bronze  280,  281 

Blackening  the  mould  41 
Black  iron,  spongy  182 
Bl'icklead                                        19 

of  229,  230 

Black  wash  for  parting  110 

Angles  in  patterns  301,302 
Animals,  moulding  17G 
Annealing  furnace  for  mal- 

Blast  290,291 
Blast,  hot  217 
Blast  machines.  '21-2--217 

Anthracite  dust  19 

Boxsuspending  from  a  crane    25 

Anthracite  pig  No.  1  180 
Anthracite  regions,  mould- 
ing sands  in  the  21 
Anti-friction  metal            .       239 

Box  to  turn  upside  down..,..    66 
Boxes,  bending  of.  56 
Boxes  for  dry  sand  mould- 
in"                                                 86 

Antimony  and  copper,  alloy 

Boxes,  large,  should  be  made 

Antimony,  melting  211 

Boxes  or  flasks  23 

Anvils                                               152 

Ar-'cntam                                235  236 

Brass                                              234 

Arsenic,  copper  and  silver, 
alloy  of  236 
Arsenic,  effect  of  on  iron  2-27 
Artificial  wood  impressions.  162 
Aztecs,  bronze  of  the  232 

Brass     and     bronze     orna- 
mental castings  '27S,  279 
Brass    and   copper,    moulds 
for  154,155 
Brass  for  hammering  234 

(334) 


INDEX. 


335 


PAGE. 

Brass  for  ship  nails 235 

Brass,  gilding  of 243, 244 

Brass,  making 224,  225 

Brass,  melting  in  crucibles 

211,224 
Brass  or  bronze  moulding...    95 

Brass  or  bronze  moulds 154 

Brass  ornaments  cast  hollow    99 
Bread  in   crumbs  as  a  ma- 
terial for   taking   impres- 
sions   159 

Britannia  metal 239 

Britannia  metals,  moulds  for  154 
Bronze     and      brass     orna- 
mental castings 278,279 

Bronze,  boiling 242 

Bronze,  casting 223 

Bronze,  casting  of. 94 

Bronze  castings  of  large  size.  138 

Bronze  color 242 

Bronze,    effect    of    sudden 

cooling 230 

Bronze  for  medals 233 

Bronze  for  ordnance 294 

Bronze  for  statues. 230 

Bronze  for  strong  castings...  224 

Bronze  for  tools 29 

Bronze,  French,  of  the  time 

of  Louis  XIV 231 

Bronze,  gilding  of 243,244 

Bronze,  increasing  the  hard- 
ness and  tenacity  of. 296 

Bronze  in  imitation  of  gold.  233 
Bronze,  melting  and  pour- 
ing....'  • 295 

Bronze,  melting  in  crucibles  211 

Bronze  of  great  tenacity 229 

Bronzeof  the  ancient  Greeks  231 
Bronze  of  the  statue  of  Louis 

XV 231 

Bronze  of  the  Vendome  Col- 
umn   231 

Bronze   or   iron  moulding, 

small  articles 95 

Bronze   ornaments,  mould- 
ing of 136-138 

Bronze,    shrinking   of  ord- 
nance  295 

Bronze   statuary,   Philadel- 
phia   255 

Bronze,  the  ancient  Mexican  232 

Bronze  to  be  gilt 233 

Bronze,  waste  of,  in  casting.  223 

Bronzes 228-234 

Bronzes,  ancient 136-138 

Bronzing  and  coating 241-249 

Bugs,  moulding 176 

Bureau  Bros.  &  Heatou 255 

Burning  of  the   sand,  pre- 
venting   19, 20 

Button  brass 234 


PAGE. 

Cannon  balls,  casting 298,299 

Capital  of  a  column,  form- 
ing      78 

Carbon,  effect  of,  on  copper.  237 

Carbon,  effect  of,  on  iron 226 

Carbon  in  pig  iron,  to  burn 

off 321 

Carbon,  to  remove,  from  cast 

iron 324 

Carr,    Crawlev  &  Develin's 

Malleable  Iron  Works 328 

Car  wheels 146 

Car  wheels,  chilled 302-305 

Cast  and  wrought  iron,  unit- 
ing   288 

Cast  iron,  malleable 248,249, 

322-333 

Cast  iron,  melting  of. 188-211 

Cast    iron    pipes,   table    of, 

weight  of. 250 

Cast  steel  guns 297 

Casting,  expenses  of 221  ' 

Casting,  horizontal  and  ver- 
tical     86 

Casting  iron  on  to  steel. ...152, 153 
Casting  pipes  without  cores.93-94 

Casting  cannon  balls -298,299 

Castings,  chilled 302 

Castings,  cleansing  of 218-220 

Castings,  heavy 219 

Castings,  sharp 321 

Castings,  table  of  shrinkages 

of..... .!...    318 

Castings,    thin,   to    remove 

brittleiiess 321,322 

Castings,   weights   of,  from 

patterns 319,320 

Castings    which    ought     to 
have  a  good  surface — what 

they  should  be  cast  in 188 

Castings      which       require 
strength  to  be  cast  upright 

or  inclined 188 

Centrifugal  blast  machine...  212 

Chaplet.. 75 

Charcoal  iron,  No.  1 180 

Charcoal  pig  iron 182 

Charcoal  powder 20 

Chilled  car  wheels 302-305 

Chilled  castings 302 

Chilled  railroad  car  wheels 

146-148 

Chilled  rollers 148 

Chilled     rollers,    important 

point  in  making 150 

Chilled    rollers    or    chilled 

wheels,  iron  for 188 

Chinese  gongs 230 

Chinese  packtbng 235,236 

Chromium,  effect  of,  on  iron  227 
Clay 17 


336 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Clay,  for  taking  impressions 

PAGE. 

Core  inside,-or  real,  require- 

Clay,  plastic,  for  deeply  cut 

Core   irons  clipped   in  c 

ay 

122 

Cleaner  29 

Core  irons,  hemp,  cotton, 
straw  in..  
Core  loam,  cow  hair  in.... 
Core,  removing  the  
Core  sand.                   i.   . 

or 

"...  116 
16  44 

Cleansing  of  castings.218,  219,  220 
Coal  basins,  moulding  sand 
in  the  21 
Coal  burning  out  of  the  sand    21 

74 

Coal  dugt  19 

Core  spindles  

-23 

Coal  powder,  disadvantages 
of  too  much  in  moulding..57,  59 
Coal  powder  inadmissible  for 
small  castings  94 

Core,  true,  finishing.:  
Core,  true,  to  remove  
Cores  

-207 
208 
...    73 

Cores,  black  washing  

....  122 

Coal  powder  not  to  be  mixed 
with  coarse  sand 58,59 


Cores,  curved  or  angular 74 

Cores,  false 261-203 


Coarse  grain  pig  iron 182    Cores,  fastening  with  wires..  2<>3 

Coarse  sand,  ramming  the...    33    Cores  for  moulding  a  stag  97,98,99 
Coarse  open  sand  for  heavy         I  Cores    forming    the    steam 

castings 58       ways 121 

Coating  the  mould 209'  Cores,  globular 76 

Coffee  kettle,  moulding  a. ..07-70  !  Cores,  heating  to  redness 122 

Cog  wheel,  moulding  a 52  I  Cores,  heavy,  of  loam 81 

Cokedust 20]  Cores,  in  a  lying  box,to  make    81 


Coke  pig  iron 180 

Cold  and  hot  blast  iron,  to 

distinguish 183 

Cold  blast  iron 1S2 

Column,  capital  ofa,  forming    78 
Column,  moulding  a  square 


hollow. 


63-06 


Column,  moulding  of  a  .......  7 

Columns  of  cast  iron,  table 

of,  to  sustain  a  given  load.  251 
Combustion,  air  lor  ...............  212 

Complicated  forms,  to  mould  134 
Composition    of    moulding 

sand  ...................................  .43-46 

Contraction  of  metals  and 

alloys  ..............................  316-319 


Copper,  alloys  of.  ..................  "228 

Copper  and  arsenic,  alloy  of  237 
Copper  and  antimony,  alloy 

of  .........................................  236 

Copper  and  brass,  moulds 

for  ....................................  154,155 

Copper  and  platinum,  alloy 

for  ........................................  256 

Copper  and  silver,  alloy  of...  236 
Copper,  antimony  and  zinc. 

alloy  of.  ................................  237 

Copper,  effect  of,  on  iron  ......  227 

Copper  melting  in  crucibles  211 
Core  box  lor  water  and  gas 

pipes  ....................................    80 

Core,  fitting  in  its  place  ........  289 

Core  for  a  pipe  .......................    80 

Core  for  cylinder  ...............  122-127 

Core,  hair  for  preventing  of 

cracking  of  loam  ................  103 


Cores,  long  or  thin,  stiffened 

by  iron  wires 74 

Cores  of  complicated  figures  100 

Cores,  round. 76 

Cores,  small  common 75,76 

Cores  sand,  small 288,  289 

Crane 25 

Crucibles,  copper,  bronze, 

etc.,  melted  in 211 

Crucibles,  melt  ing  iron  in  192-196 
Crystallization  of  metals  in 

cooling 300,301 

Cupola  furnace,  work  done 

by 208 

Cupola,  the 201-209 

Cupolas 290 

Curved  forms,  moulding..l32, 133 

Cymbals '230 

Cylinder  blast  machine 212 

Cylinder  for  steam  engine, 

moulding  a 117, 118 

Cylindrical  columns  of  cast 

iron,  table  of,  to  sustain  a 

given  load 251 

Dark  gray  pig  iron 179, 180, 181 

Deeply  cut  pattern,  plastic 

clay  for 277 

Diamonds,  imitation 240 

Dished  utensils,  easting  of...  70 

Dividing  the  pattern 269 

Division'  of  labor  in  green 

sand  moulding 46 

Door  hinges,  east  iron 286 

Dried  cores  .with  green  sand  73 
Drying  slovos 217, 218 


337 


PAGH. 

Dry  sand  moulding  84-86 
Drying  the  moulds  270 

Electron  236 

PAGK. 

Gas  and  air  passages  267 
Gas  pipes.  80 
Gas  pipes  or  air  pipes  of  a 
heavy  casting  115 

Electroplaters,  moulds    for 
313,  314 
Electrotype  307,308 

Gases  generated  in  a  loam 
mould         .                             108 

Gases  from  charcoal  d  ust,  to 
avoid                                         $>l 

Enameling    of   metal   cast- 
ings       246 

Gates  36,37  38 

Gates  for  entrance  of  metal.  263 
Gelatine  for  moulds  314,  315 
German  silver  235-236 
German    silver  melting   in 
crucibles  211 

Expenses  of  moulding  and 
casting  ;  221 
Extremities,     difficulty     of 
metal  reaching  280 

Face  dust  for  castings  20 

German  silver,  solder  for  236 
Gilding  of  bronze  and  brass 
243,244 
Gildin^  of  iron                          244 

Fal«e  cores                           261  263 

False  cores,  fastening,  with 
wires                                           268 

Glands                                           34 

Glass,  colored  impressions  in  161 
Glass,  impressions  in  158-161 
Glazing  of  metal  castings  246,  247 
Glue  as  a  material  for  mak- 
ing casts  175 

Fan,  the  212-217 

Fine  castings,  moulding  of..    94 
Fine  strong  sand  not  to  be 
used  for  heavy  mouldings 

Gold,  alloys  of.  228 
Gold  bronze,  imitation  of....  233 
Gold  combination  with  iron  227 
Gold  melting  in  crucible  211 
Gongs,  bronze  of  230 
Grate  bars,  moulding  66 
Gray-wache,  sand  of  15 
Greeks,  ancient,  bronze  of...  231 
Green  sand  moulding,  diffi- 
culties in  46,47 
Green  sand,  moulding  in  31 
Green  sand  with  dried  cores    73 
Grinding  of  cast  iron                248 

Finishing  of  castings  255 

Flame  issuing  from  a  loam 

Flasks  27,259 
Flask,  appearance  of  when 
boxes,  patterns,  and  gates 
are  in  their  places  38,39 
Flasks  or  boxes  23 
Flasks,  snap  283-285 
Flasks,  turning  the,  over  265 
Flexible  moulds  308-309 
Flies,  moulding  176 

Gun  cast  steel                          297 

Gutta-percha  moulds  313,314 
Hardening  of  plaster  275 

Flow  gates  113-114 
Fluid   iron  will   make  fine 
and  sharp  castings  100 
Fonderie  a  Calebasse  292,  293 
Founding                              179-225 

Heavy  castings,  sand  for  58,59 
Heavy   machinery,   iron   of 

Foundry,  iron  179-180 
French  bronze  of  the  time  of 
Louis  XIV                                 231 

Hinges,  moulding  66 
1  Hinges,  ornamental  castings 
for                                                278 

French  mode  of  moulding 
statues  139 

Hollow  column,  moulding  a63-66 
Hollow  projectiles  299 
Hollow  ware  boxes  used  in 

French  speculum  metal  232 
French  system  of  moulding, 
objection  and  advantages.  256 
French     system,     practical 

Hollow  ware  casting  28 
Hollow  ware  moulders,  pe- 
culiarly  shaped   tools  re- 
quired by  71 

Fuel,    consumption    of    in 
melting  221 

Hollow  ware  moulding  66-68 
Hollow  warecf  folilj  iron  182 
Hollow  ware,  patterns  tor....    vt 
Hollow     ware,      plumbago 
blackenins  for  71 

Furnace  air  for  melting  iron 
•:rW«i      .....                192-193 
fusible  metais   melting    m 
iron  pots  ..  .  211 

29 


338 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Hollowness  in  solid  shot.  300 

FA  OK. 

Horizontal  and  vertical  cast- 
ing            86 

Iron  trinkets,  solder  ior  99 

Horn,  impressions  in  158 
Hot  blast                                     217 

making  casts  175 

Hot  blast  and  cold  blast  iron  18-2 

Impressions  in  castings  158 
Inside  or  real  core,  require- 

Joining  the  parts  of  a  statue 
272,  273 
Joints    of    separately    cast 
pieces  273,274 

Iron,  alloys  of  226-228 

Kettles,  moulding  66,104 

Iron  and  gold  227 

Iron  and  lead,  alloy  of.  227 
Iron  and  silver,  alloy  of.  227 
Iron  and  tin  227 

Labor,  division  of  in  green 

Iron,  arsenic  in  2-27 

sand  moulding  46 
Ladles  191 

Iron,  carbon  in  226 
Iron  castings,  malleable.  ..322-333 
Iron,  casting  on  to  steel.  ..152,  153 
Iron  casting,  when  cast  hoi- 

Large  pipe,  moulding  ot  87-93 
Latches,  moulding  66 
Lead,  alloys  of  257-239 
Lead  and  iron,  alloy  of  227 
Lead,  melting  211,  224 

Iron  casts,  blackening  of  247 

Lead,  tin,  etc..  mould  for.153,  154 

iron  coiumnSj  taoie  01.  .........  zoi 

carbon,  how  improved  186 
Iron,  dark  gray  pig  179,180 

Lifting  the  pattern  43 
Light  iron  castings  31 

Irons,  elasticity  of  ....'  184 
Iron  flasks  71 

Loam  articles  used  for  pre- 
venting cracking  l(fc 
Loam  b»ard                           .    108 

cliilled  wheels  _  188 

Loam,    importance    of    the 

Iron  for  railings  and  orna- 

Loam  mortar  107 

Irregular  forms,  moulding 

Loam  moulding  100-103 
Loam  moulding,  general  re- 
marks on  127 

Iron'  grindi7ig  of  cast  248 
Iron  hot  blast,  advantage  of  185 

Loam  worked  to  make  tex- 
ture uniform  103 

Iron,  if  too"  gray  how  Iin- 

Locks,  ornamental  castings 
for.  278 

Iron  in  the  blast  furnace  188 
Iron,  loss  of  in  melting  222 
Iron  melting  in  crucibles.192-196 
Irons  mixed  together  strong- 
er     tlian      the     average 

Lottinoplastique  309-312 

Machine  frames  ,wliat  to  be 
east  in  188 
Machinery,  moulding  small 
articles  of               61 

Iron,  mixing  of  184 
Iron  No.  1  179,180 
Iron  No.  2.  181 
Iron  No.  3.  181 
Iron  of  which  to  cast  a  chill.  150 

Maine,  moulding  sand  In  21 
Malleable  cast  iron  i48,-^4» 
Malleable  iron  castings..  
289,  290,  322-333 
Malleable  iron  castings,  cost 
of                                              332 

Malleable  iron  castings,  uses 

of                                                    332 

ings  ....  187 

Manganese  copper.  280 

Iron  silicon  in                          227 

Manheim  "Old  234 

Iron  statues  142 
Iron,  sulphur  in  226 

Maryland,  moulding  sand  in    21 
Mastic  for  filling  holes  321 

INDEX. 


339 


PAGE. 

Meal                      .         .             31 

PAGE. 

Moulding,  noblest  of  the  ai  ts    13 
Moulding  of  a  column  76-80 
Moulding  of  a  large  pipe  87-93 
Moulding  of  bells  ..143-146 
Moulding   of  bronze  orna- 
ments                                  136-138 

Medals,  bronze  for  233 
Melting     in    reverberatory 
furnaces   196-201 

Melting  iron  in  crucibles.192-196 
Melting  of  cast  iron  188-201 
Melting  of  uietals  179-211 
Melting  the  metal  271 
Metal  castings,  glazing  of  246,  247 
Metal,  fluid,  temperature  of.  270 
Metal  moulds                    .      .  153 

Moulding  of  fine  castings  94 
Moulding  of  more  than  two 
boxes                      5& 

Moulding  of  simple  round 

Metal  used  for  ordnance.,296,297 
Metals  and  alloys,  contrac- 
tion of     316-319 

Moulding  of  statues  138-142 
Moulding     of     statues     in 
plaster  of  Paris  168-174 

Metals  and  alloys,  table  of 
specific  gravities  of  252 
Metals  and  allovs,  table  of 
tenacities  and  resistances..  251 
Metals,  crystallization  of,  in 
cooling                                  300  301 

Moulding  ordnance  294-295 
Moulding,  ornamental  62 
Moulding  oval  forms  132 

Moulding  plate  283-285 
Moulding  pipos                             86 

Moulding  proper  ...13,  14 
Moulding  sand  14 
Moulding  sand,  composition 
of                                              43-46 

Metals,  melting  of  179-211 
Metamorpliic  strata,  mould- 
ing sand  in  21 
Mills  for  grinding  blacken- 
ing                                         .    22 

Moulding  sand  for  ordnance  297 
Moulding  sand,  good,  where 
found  in  the  United  States    21 
Moulding  sand,  importance 
of,  for  small  articles..  94 
Moulding     small     articles, 
ossepia  for  279 
Moulding  triangular  forms..  132 
Moulding,       two       distinct 
branches        '           .                 13 

Mixed  sand  moulding  73 
Mixing  of  iron  184 
Mortises  and  tennons  258 
Mould,  blackening  the  41 
Mould,  coating  the  269 
Mould  in  which  iron  is  cast 
has   an    influence   on    its 
strength                                     188 

Mould,  preparation   of,  for 

Moulding  with  plates  82 

Moulding          13-178 

Moulds^  flexible  308,309 
Moulds  for  castings  of  white 

Moulding  a  coffee  kettle  68-70 

Moulding  a  stag  :.  ...    96 
Moulding  curved  forms.  ..132,  133 
Moulding,  dry  sand  84-86 
Moulding,  expenses  of.  221 
Moulding,  French  svstem  260 
Moulding,  high  interest  of  ..    13 
Moulding  hollow  ware  66-68 
Moulding  in  green  sand  31 
Moulding  in  green  sand  with 
dried  cores  73 
Moulding  in  loam  without 
thickness           .         116 

Moulds  for  copper  and  brass 
154,155 
Moulds  for  lead,  tin,  etc...!53,154 
Moulds  for  ordnance  29(5 
Moulds,  gelatine  314,315 
Moulds,  gutta-percha  313,  314 
Moulds,  metal  153 
Moulds  partly  of  loam  and 
sand,  and  partly  of  metal..  146 
Moulds,  temperature  of  the.  270 
Mounting    or    joining    the 
parts  of  a  statue  272,  273 
Musical  instruments,  to  give 
a  sonorous  property  to  230 
Music  metal                      .         239 

Moulding  in  one  box.  50-52 
Moulding  in  open  sand  48^50 
Moulding  in  wax  276,277 
Moulding    irregular    forms 
128-132 
Moulding  loam  100-103 
Moulding  loam,  composition 
of  artificial  102 
Moulding,  materials  used  in    14 
Moulding,  mixed  sand  73 
Moulding  natural  objects!76-178 

Natural  objects,  mould!  ng!76-178 
New  or   French  system  of 
moulding  256 
No.  1  iron  179-180 
No.  2  Iron  181 
No.  3  iron  181 

340 


IXDEX. 


PAGE. 

No.  3,  white  pig  Iron      181 

PAOK, 

Pipes                                             80 

Nurnburg  gola  234 

Openings  or  gates   for  en- 
trance of  metal,  „  263 

Pipes,  casting  28 
Pipes,  cast  iron,  weight  of....  250 
Pipes,  moulding  86 
Pipes  without  cores  93-S>4 

iron                                              180 

Operations  In  the  cupola..205-209 
Ordnance  293-300 
Ordnance,  bronze  for     .     ..  294 

Plaster,  alum  275 
Plaster  castings,  large,  made 
hollow.                                      172 

Ordnance,   bronze,    shrink- 
age of                                          295 

Plaster,  hardening  the  275 

Ordnance  cast  solid  and  with 

in  163-168 

coves  297,298 

Plaster  of  Paris,  moulding  of 

Ordnance  moulding..        294  295 

statues  in            168-174 

Ordnance,  moulds  lor  296 

Plaster  pattern,  separating 

for  296,297 

Plastic  clay  for  deeply  cut 

Ordnance,  sand  for  mould- 

patterns  277 

Plate  moulding.   •.  283-285 

OrgaA  pipes,  metals  for..  ..239,  240 
Ornamental     castings     for 

Plates,  moulding  with  82 
Platinum  and  copper,  alloy 
for                                                236 

Ornamental  compositions  99 
Ornamental  moulding  62 
Oval  forms,  moulding  132 

Plumbago    blackening    for 
hollow  ware  71 
Plumbasro.  where  found  22 

Packfong,  Chinese 235, 236    Porous  sand  ... 


...    45 


Paper,  impressions  in 158    Potash,  use  of,  in  casting 223 

Parting  sand 30,36    Pots 210,211 

Passages  for  the  metal 37    Pots,  moulding 66 

Pattern,  cleaning  the... 41    Precious  metals,  alloys  of.....  228 

Pattern,  dividing  the 269    Pressure  of  fluid  metal 270 

Pattern,  forming  the 14  |  Princess  metal 234 

Pattern,  lifting  the 43  |  Processes  and  receipts,  mis- 


Pattern,  removing  the 265  I     cellaneous.. 

Pattern,  separating 258  !  Projectiles,  hollow 299 


Pattern,  to  withdraw  a 

Patterns  for  hollow  ware  re- 
quired to  be  accurate 70 

Patterns  which  may  be  cast 
by  French  process 274.275  I  Railing,  moulding 


Pulley,  moulding  a 59,60 

Queen's  metal 


Patterns,  no  sharp  augles.301, 302 

Pease-meal 31 

Pennsylvania,        moulding 

sand  in .7.    21 

Pewter 209 

Pewter,  moulds  for 154 

Philadelphia  bronze   statu- 
ary   155 

Phosphor  bronze 
Phosphorus,    effect    of,    on 

copper 237 

Phosphorus,    effect    of    on 

iron 226 

Phosphorus  in  pig  iron. _  182 

Piercers  or  prickers 30 

Fig  metal    holding  copper, 
castings  from ~ 


Hailing  post,  moulding  a 63-66 

Railings,  irons  for 187 

Railroad  car  wheels,  chilled 

146-148 
Rammers  of  wood  and  iron.    29 

Reaumur,  M 32C 

Receipts  and  processes,  mis- 
cellaneous  320-322 

Receipts  and  tables 226-252 

Red  brass 234 

Reflectors.,  metal  for 240 

Refuse  and  scrap  in  making 

castings 223 

Relief  impressions 158 

Repairing  accidents 271 


Reverberatory  furnace    for 

„ malleable  iron  castings. ;J2>S-330 

Pipe,  moulding  a  bent 128-132  ;  Reverbatory  furnaces,  melt- 
Pipe,  moulding  a  large 87-93  I     ing  in 196-20J 


341 


PAGE. 

Reverbatory  furnaces,  the...  197 
Kiddle                                             30 

PAGB. 

Shrinkage    of    metals    and 
alloys                                   316-319 

Roller,  to  cast  a  150-152 
Rollers  chilletL.  148 

Shrinkage      o  f      ordnance 
bronze  295 

Hollers,    chilled,   important 
point  in  making  150 
Rollers  for  iron  works  134 
Rollers  what  to  be  cast  in      188 

Shrinkages  of  castings  318 
Ship  nails,  brass  for  235 
Shot,  hollowness  in  300 
Shovels                                           30 

Root's  blower.  291 

Sieves  30 

Rosette,  to  mould  a  95~ 
Rosse's  telescope,  speculum 
metal  of                               232-233 

Silicon,  effect  of,  on  iron  227 
Silicum-copper  280 
Silver,  alloys  of.  228 
Silver  and  copper,  alloy  of.  236 
Silver  and  iron,  alloy  of.  227 
Silver  leaf,  spurious  231 
Silver  melting  in  crucibles...  211 
Similor                        .                  234 

Round  forms,  simple  mould- 
Ing  104 

Sand  bells  moulded  in.     ...  143 

Simple  sand  forms,  mould- 
ing    104 

Sand,  blackening  or  coating    19 
Sand,    coating    of    fine,    to 
make  smooth  castings  58 
Sand,  core  16 
Sand  cores,  ramming  the  33 
Sand  cores,  small  288,289 
Sand,    different    kinds     re- 
quired lor  moulding  15 
Sand,  facing  32 
Sand        from         mountain 

Slate,  sand  of.  15 

Sleek  washing  Ill 
Small   articles,    importance 
of  moulding  sand  94 
Small  articles  of  machinery, 
moulding  61 
Small  castings,  iron  for  187 
Small  tools               28 

Smooth    surface    for    large 

Sand  for  dry  moulding  16 
Sand  for  moulding  ordnance  297 
Sand  for  undricd  moulds  16 
Sand,  good  moulding,  where 
found  in  the  United  States    21 
Sand,  melting  of  the  19 
Sand,  moulding  14 
Sand,  moulding,  color  of  16 
Sand,  moulding  in  open  48-50 
Sand  of  transition  or  meta- 
inorphous  rocks  15 
Sand,  open  porous  45,58 
Sand,  parting  30,  36 
Sand,  preventing  the  burn- 
ing of  the                               19  20 

Snap  flasks  283-285 
Soap  kettle  or  pan,  mould- 
in  "a       .                                  104 

Soap  stone  powder  for  pre- 
venting the  burning  of  the 
sand  20 

Solder  for  brass  and  bronze.    99 
Solder  for  German  silver  236 
Solder  for  iron  trinkets  99 
Solders    276 

Sonorous   property  of  mu- 
sical instruments  230 
Specific  gravities  of  metals 
and  alloys               .         252 

Speculum  metal  232,  233 
Speculum    metal    of     Lord 
Rosse's  telescope  232,233 
Spiegeleisen  280,  28H 
Spinning  machines,  castings 

Sand,  primary  rocks  15 
Sand,  river  15 
Sand  used  for  malleable  iron 

Sands  used           .                  263  264 

Sands,  white  or  gray  16 

Square      hollow      column, 
moulding  a  63-66 
Stag,  moulding  a  96 
Statuary    and    ornamental 

Scaffolding                                   293 

Scotch  pig  iron  180 
Screw  propeller  ,  135,  136 
Sealing  wax,  impressions  in 
159,  175 
Separately  cast  pieces,  joints 
of  .....273,274 
Separating     the     parts     of 
plaster  pattern  258 
Sharp  angles  in  patterns..301,  302 
Sharp  castings  ....  321 

Statue,  mounting  or  joining 

Statues,  bronze  ibr.  230 
Statues,    Trench    mode    of 
moulding  139 
Statues  in  plaster  of  l'aris.lGS-174 
Statues  iron  142 

342 


PAGE. 

Statues,  moulding  of.  138-142 
Steel  guns                                     297 

PAG  a. 
Undercut  piaster  patterns, 

Ste  tin  ways,  the  cores  form- 
ing the  121 

Ven  dome,  bronze  of  column  281 
Vent  holes   ...           .  .                  45 

Stereotypes  305-307 
Stereotyping  155-157 

Vent  holes  for  escape  of  gases    74 
Vertical  and  horizontal  cast- 
ing      86 

Stoves,  drying  217,  218 
Stoves,  moulding  66,  67 
Stove  plates,  moulding  66 
Sulphur  a  valuable  material 
for  sharp  castings  174 
Sulphur,  effect  of.  on  iron  226 
Sulphur,  impressions  in.  ..158,  160 
Swivels  „  286-288 

Virginia,  moulding  sand  in  21-22 
Vises      152 

Water  pipes  80 

Wax,  a  firm  and  fusible  320 
Ww,x  as  a  material  for  taking 

Tables.            250-252 

Tables  of  shrinkages  of  cast- 

Wax  a  useful  material  for 

Tables  of  weights  of  castings 
from  patterns  319,  320 
Tamtams  230 
Temperature  of  the  moulds.  270 
Tenacities  and  resistances  of 
metals  and  alloys,  table  of  251 
Tennons  and  mortises...:  258 
Tertiary,  deposits  in  the  21 
Thin    castings,    to    remove 
brittleness  from  321,  322 

Wax,  impressions  in  158 
Wax,  moulding  in  276,277 
Wax,  moulding  with.                139 

Wax,  pattern  mixture  for...  321 
Wax  process  253-255 

Welding  together  steel  and 
cast  iron  152 
Weights   of    castings    from 

Whalebone,  impressions  in    158 
Wheel,  beveled,  moulding  a    82 
Wheels,  chilled  car  302-305 
White   metals,   moulds   for 

Tin,  alloys  of  239-^41 
Tin  and  iron,  alloy  of  227 
Tin  foil                                      ..  240 

Tin,  lead,  etc.,  moulds  for.153,  154 
Tin,  melting  211,224 
Tin,  waste  of,  in  casting  223 
Tinning  of  brass,  iron  and 

White  pig  iron  No.  3  181 
Whitney  &  Son's  chilled  car 
wheels  302-305 
Wires  for  false  cores  268 
Wood,  artificial  impressions 

Tomback                                       234 

Tools  for  moulding  23 

Wood,  Robt.  &  Co  255 
Wrought  and  cast  iron,  unit- 
ing    288 

Zinc,  alloys  of  241 

Tools  required  274 
Tools    small                                   28 

Traverses  33,  34,  36 
Triangular  forms,  moulding  132 
Trowels  28 
True  core,  finishing  the  267 
True  core,  to  remove  268 

Zinc  castings  276 
Zinc,  melting  '211 

Types,  moulds  for  164 

Zinc,  waste  of,  in  casting  223 
Zinking  of  copper  or  bronze 
245,246 

Lehatius,      Gen'l.      experi- 
ments with  bronze-  296 

. 


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Wool,  and  Straw  Hats,  Jute  Yarn,  Vegetable  Ivory,  Mats,  Skins, 
Furs,  Leather,  etc.,  etc.  By  Wood,  Aniline,  and  other  Processes, 
together  with  Remarks  on  Finishing  Agents,  and  Instructions  in  the 
Finishing  of  Fabrics,  Substitutes  for  Indigo,  Water-Proofing  of 
Materials,  Tests  and  Purification  of  Water,  Manufacture  of  Aniline 
and  other  New  Dye  Wares,  Harmonizing  Colors,  etc.,  etc. ;  embrac- 
ing in  all  over  800  Receipts  for  Colors  and  Shades,  accompanied  by 
170  Dyed  Samples  of  Raw  Materials  and  Fabrics.  By  F.  J.  BIRD, 
Practical  Dyer,  Author  of  "  The  Dyers'  Hand-Book."  8vo.  $10.00 

BLINN.— A  Practical  Workshop  Companion  for  Tin,  Sheet- 
Iron,  and  Copper-plate  Workers  : 

•  Containing  Rules  for  describing  various  kinds  of  Patterns  used  by 
Tin,  Sheet-Iron  and  Copper-plate  Workers;  Practical  Geometry; 
Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids;  Tables  of  the  Weights  of 
Metals,  Lead-pipe,  etc. ;  Tables  of  Areas  and  Circumference! 
of  Circles;  Japan,  Varnishes,  Lackers,  Cements,  Compositions,  etc., 
etc.  By  LEROV  J.  BLINN,  Master  Mechanic.  With  over  One 
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.—  r  aua: 

taining  Practical  Information  respecting  Marbles  in  general,  their 

ting,  Working  and  Polishing  ;   Veneering  of  Marble  ;    Mosaics  j 

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BOOTH.—  Marble  Worker's  Manual: 

Containing  Practical  Information  res 

Cutti 

Composition  and  Use  of  Artificial  Marble,  Stuccos,  Cements,  Receipts, 

Secrets,  etc.,   etc.     Translated  from  the  French  by  M.  L.  BOOTH. 

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BOOTH   and    MORFIT.  —  The    Encyclopaedia   of    Chemistry, 

Practical  and  Theoretical  : 

Embracing  its  application  to  the  Arts,  Metallurgy,  Mineralogy, 
Geology,  Medicine  and  Pharmacy.  By  JAMES  C.  BOOTH,  Melter 
and  Refiner  in  the  United  States  Mint,  Professor  of  Applied  Chem- 
istry in  the  Franklin  Institute,  etc.,  assisted  by  CAMPBELL  MORFIT, 
author  of  "  Chemical  Manipulations,"  etc.  Seventh  Edition.  Com- 
plete in  one  volume,  royal  8vo.,  978  pages,  with  numerous  wood-cuts 
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BRAM  WELL.—  The  Wool  Carder's  Vade-Mecum: 

A  Complete  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Carding  Textile  Fabrics.  By  W. 
C.  BRAMWELL.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated. 
pp.  4.00.  I2mo  .........  $2.50 

BRANNT.—  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Raw  Materials  and  the 

Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Alcohol,  and  the  Prepara- 

tion of  Alcoholic  Liquors,  Liqueurs,  Cordials,  Bitters,  etc.  : 

Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Dr.  K.  Stammer,  Dr.  F.  Eisner, 

and  E.  Schubert.     By  WM.  T.  BRANNT.     Illustrated  by  thirty-one 

engravings.     I2mo.  .......         $2.50 

BRANNT—  WAHL.—  The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book: 
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portant, and  most  useful  discoveries  in  Chemical  Technology,  and 
their  Practical  Application  in  the  Arts  and  the  Industries.  Edited 
chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs.  Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintze,  Mier- 
zinski,  Jacobsen,  Koller,  and  Heinzerling,  with  additions  by  WM.  T. 
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BROWN.  —  Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements: 
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BUCKMASTER.—  The  Elements  of  Mechanical  Physics  : 
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BULLOCK.—  The  American  Cottage  Builder  : 

A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans  and  Specifications,  from  $200  to  $20,000, 
for  Homes  for  the  People  ;  together  with  Warming,  Ventilation, 
Drainage,  Painting  and  Landscape  Gardening.  By  JOHN  BULLOCK, 
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BULLOCK.—  The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Building^ 
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BURGH.— Practical    Rules    for    the   Proportions   of     Modern 

Engines  and  Boilers  for  Land  and  Marine  Purposes. 
By  N.  P.  BURGH,  Engineer.     lamo #1.50 

BURNS.— The  American  Woolen  Manufacturer: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Woolens,  in  two  parts. 
Part  First  gives  full  and  explicit  instructions  upon  Drafting,  Cross- 
Drawing,  Combining  Weaves,  and  the  correct  arrangement  of  Weights, 
Colors  and  Sizes  of  Yarns  to  produce  any  desired  fabric.  Illustrated 
with-  diagrams  of  various  weavings,  and  twelve  samples  of  cloth  for 
explanation  and  practice.  Part  Second  is  fully  supplied  with  ex 
tended  Tables,  Rules,  Examples,  Explanations,  etc. ;  gives  full  and 
practical  information,  in  detailed  order,  from  the  stock  department  to 
the  market,  of  the  proper  selection  and  use  of  the  various  grades  and 
staples  of  wool,  with  the  admixture  of  waste,  cotton  and  shoddy;  and 
the  proper  application  and  economical  use  of  the  various  oils,  drugs, 
dye  stuffs,  soaps,  belting,  etc.  Also,  the  most  approved  method  for 
Calculating  and  Estimating  the  Cost  of  Goods,  for  all  Wool,  Wool 
Waste  and  Cotton  and  Cotton  Warps.  With  Examples  and  Calcula- 
tions on  the  Circular  motions  of  Wheels,  Pinions,  Drums,  Pulleys 
and  Gears,  how  to  speed  them,  etc.  The  two  parts  combined  form  a 
whole  work  on  the  American  way  of  manufacturing  more  complete 
than  any  yet  issued.  Ey  GEORGE  C.  BURNS.  8vo.  . 

BYLES. — Sophisms    of     Free    Trade    and    Popular    Political 

Economy  Examined. 

By  a  BARRISTER  (SiR  JOHN  BARNARD  BYLES,  Judge  of  Common 
Pleas).  .From  the  Ninth  English  Edition,  as  published  by  the 
Manchester  Reciprocity  Association.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $'.25 

BOWMAN.— The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fibre  in  its  Relation 

to  the  Use  of  Wool  for  Technical  Purposes : 
Being  the  substance,  with  additions,  of  Five  Lectures,  delivered  at 
the  request  of  the  Council,  to  the  members  of  the  Bradford  Technical 
College,  and  the  Society  of  Dyers  and  Colotists.  By  F.  II.  LOW- 
MAN,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  L'.  S.  Illustrated  by  32  engravings. 
8vo £6.50 

BYRN.— The  Complete  Practical  Distiller: 

Comprising  the  most  perfect  and  exact  Theoretical  and  Practical  De- 
scription of  the  Art  of  Distillation  and  Rectification;  including  all  of 
the  most  recent  improvements  in  dialling  apparatus;  instructions  for 
preparing  spirits  from  the  numerous  vegetables,  fruits,  etc  ;  directions 
for  the  distillation  and  preparation  of  all  kinds  of  brandies  and  other 
spirits,  spirituous  and  other  compounds,  etc.  By  M.  LA  FAYETTE 
BYRN,  M.  D.  Eighth  Edition.  To  which  are  added  Practical 
Directions  for  Distilling,  from  the  French  of  Th.  Fling,  Brewer  and 
Distiller.  I2mo • 

BYRNE.— Hand-Book  for  the  Artisan,  Mechanic,  and  Engi- 
neer: 

Comprising  the  Grinding  and  Sharpening  of  Cutting  Tools,  Abrasive 
Processes,  Lapidary  Work,  Gem  and  Glass  Engraving,  Varnishing 
and  Lackering,  Apparatus,  Materials  and  Processes  for  Grinding  and 


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Polishing,  etc.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  Illustrated  by  185  wood  en- 
gravings. 8vo. $5.04 

BYRNE.— Pocket-Book  for  Railroad  and  Civil  Engineers: 
Containing  New,  Exact  and  Concise  Methods  for  Laying  out  Railroao 
Curves,  Switches,  Frog  Angles  and  Crossings;  the  Staking  out  of 
work;  Levelling;  the  Calculation  of  Cuttings;  Embankments;  Earth- 
work, etc.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  i8mo.,  full  bound,  pocket-book 
form $1-75 

BYRNE.— The  Practical  Metal-Worker's  Assistant: 

Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry;  the  Arts  of  Working  all  Metals 
and  Alloys;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel;  Hardening  and  Tempering; 
Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding  ;  Works  in  Sheet  Metal; 
the  Processes  Dependent  on  the  Ductility  of  the  Metals;  Soldering; 
and  the  most  Improved  Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- 
workers. With  the  Application  of  the  Art  of  Electro-Metallurgy  to 
Manufacturing  Processes;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from 
the  works  of  Holtzapffel,  Bergeron,  Leupold,  Plumier,  Napier, 
Scoffern,  Clay,  Fairbairn  and  others.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  A  new, 
revised  and  improved  edition,  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  con- 
taining The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron.  By  JOHN  PERCY, 
M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  The  Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  and 
Improvements  in  Bessemer  Steel.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.  With  over  Six  Hundred  Engravings,  Illustrating  every 
Branch  of  the  Subject.  8vo $7.00 

BYRNE.— The  Practical  Model  Calculator: 

For  the  Engineer,  Mechanic,  Manufacturer  of  Engine  Work,  Nava'i 
Architect,  Miner  and  Millwright.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  8vo.,  nearly 
600  pages $4.50 

CABINET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE: 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  various  Styles  of  Furniture. 
Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beautifully  Engraved  Plates. 
Oblong,  8vo $$.$O 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing : 

A  Complete  Practifcal  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  Art.  By  JAMES 
CALLINGHAM.  121110.  ..:....  $1.50 

CAMPIN. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Engineering: 
Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Work- 
shop Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  Steam- 
Engines,  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Analysis  of  Iron  and  Iron 
Ores.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.  E.  To  which  are  added,  Observations 
on  the  Construction  of  Steam  Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces 
used  for  Smoke  Prevention ;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  By  R. 
ARMSTRONG,  C.  E.,  and  JOHN  BOURNE.  Rules  for  Calculating  the 
Change  Wheels  for  Screws  on  a  Turning  Lathe,  and  for  a  Wheel 
cutting  Machine.  By  J.  LA  NlCCA.  Management  of  Steel,  Includ- 
ing Forging,  Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing,  Shrinking  and 
Expansi  n  ;  and  the  Case-hardening  of  Iron.  By  G.  EDE.  8vo. 
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CAREY.— A  Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 

By  DR.  WM.  ELDER.    With  a  portrait.     8vo.,  cloth         .         .        75 

CAREY.— The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey  : 

Harmony  of  Interests  :    Agricultural,  Manufacturing  and  Commer- 
cial.    8vo.  .         .         £1.50 

Manual  of  Social  Science.  Condensed  from  Carey's  "  Principles 
of  Social  Science."  By  KATE  McKEAN.  I  vol.  I2mo.  .  $2.2$ 
Miscellaneous  Works.  With  a  Portrait.  2  vols.  8vo.  $6.00 

Past,  Present  and  Future.     8vo £2.50 

Principles  of  Social  Science.  3  volumes,  8vo.  .  .  $10.00 
The  Slave-Trade,  Domestic  and  Foreign;  Why  it  Exists,  and 
How  it  may  be  Extinguished  (1853).  8vo.  .  .  .  $2.00 
The  Unity  of  Law :  As  Exhibited  in  the  Relations  of  Physical, 
Social,  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (1872).  8vo.  .  .  $3.50 

CLARK. — Tramways,  their  Construction  and  Working : 

Embracing  a  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System.  With  an  ex- 
haustive analysis  of  the  various  modes  of  traction,  including  horse- 
power, steam,  heated  water  and  compressed  air;  a  description  of  the 
varieties  of  Rolling  stock,  and  ample  details  of  cost  and  working  ex- 
penses. By  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK.  Illustrated  by  over  200  wood 
engravings,  and  thirteen  folding  plates.  2  vols.  8vo.  .  #12.50 

COLBURN.— The  Locomotive  Engine  : 

Including  a  Description  of  its  Structure,  Rules  for  Estimating  its 
Capabilities,  and  Practical  Observations  on  its  Construction  and  Man- 
agement. By  ZERAH  COLBURN.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  .  $1.00 

COLLENS.— The  Eden  of  Labor ;  or,  the  Christian  Utopia. 
By  T.  WHARTON  COLLENS,  author  of  "  Humanics,"    "  The  History 
of  Charity,"  etc.     I2mo.     Paper  cover,  $  I .00 ;   Cloth          .         $1.25 

COOLEY. — A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery : 

Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet  Articles. 
With  a  Comprehensive  Collection  of  Formulae.  By  ARNOLD  J. 
COOLEY.  I2mo #1.50 

COOPER.— A  Treatise  on  the  use  of  Belting  for  the   Trans- 
mission of  Power. 

With  numerous  illustrations  of  approved  and  actual  methods  of  ar- 
ranging Main  Driving  and  Quarter  Twist  Belts,  and  of  Belt  Fasten- 
ings. Examples  and  Rules  in  great  number  for  exhibiting  and  cai- 
culating  the  size  and  driving  power  of  Belts.  Plain,  Particular  and 
Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment,  Care  and  Management  of 
Belts.  Descriptions  of  many  varieties  of  Beltings,  together  with 
chapters  on  the  Transmission  of  Power  by  Ropes;  by  Iron  and 
Wood  Frictional  Gearing;  on  the  Strength  of  Belting  Leather;  and 
on  the  Experimental  Investigations  of  Morin,  Briggs,  and  others.  By 
JOHN  H.  COOVER,  M.  E.  8vo #3.50 

CRAIK.— The  Practical  American  Millwright  and  Miller. 

By  DAVID  CRAIK,  Millwright.  Illustrated  by  numerous  wood  en- 
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CRISTIANL— A  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles : 

With  a  Glance  at  the  Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.  By  R.  S.  CRIS- 
T1ANI,  Chemist.  Author  of  "Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts."  Illus- 
trated by  176  engravings.  581  pages,  8vo.  .  .  .  $7 -SO 

CRISTIANL— Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts: 

A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  a  History  of 
Perfumes  from  the  remotest  ages  to  the  present  time.  A  complete 
detailed  description  of  the  various  Materials  and  Apparatus  used  in 
the  Perfumer's  Art,  with  thorough  Praciical  Instruction  and  careful 
Formulae,  and  advice  for  the  fabrication  of  all  known  preparations  of* 
the  day,  including  Essences,  Tinctures,  Extracts,  Spirits,  Waters, 
Vinegars,  Pomades,  Powders,  Paints,  Oils,  Emulsions,  Cosmetics, 
Infusions,  Pastilles,  Tooth  Powders  and  Washes,  Cachous,  Hair  Dyes, 
Sachets,  Essential  Oils,  Flavoring  Extracts,  etc. ;  and  full  details  for 
making  and  manipulating  Fancy  Toilet  Soaps,  Shaving  Creams,  etc., 
by  new  and  improved  methods.  With  an  Appendix  giving  hints  and 
advice  for  making  and  fermenting  Domestic  Wines,  Cordials,  Liquors, 
Candies,  Jellies,  Syrups,  Colors,  etc.,  and  for  Perfuming  and  Flavor- 
ing Segars,  Snuff  and  Tobacco,  and  Miscellaneous  Receipts  for 
various  useful  Analogous  Articles.  By  R.  S.  CRISTIANI,  Con- 
sulting Chemist  and  Perfumer,  Philadelphia.  8vo.  .  .  j>5-OO 

CUPPER.— The  Universal  Stair-Builder : 

Being  a  new  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Stair-Cases  and  Hand- 
Rails;  showing  Plans  of  the  various  forms  of  Stairs,  method  of 
Placing  the  Risers  in  the  Cylinders,  general  method  of  describing 
the  Face  Moulds  for  a  Hand-Rail,  and  an  expeditious  method  of 
Squaring  the  Rail.  Useful  also  to  Stonemasons  constructing  Stone 
Stairs  and  Hand-Rails  ;  with  a  new  method  of  Sawing  the  Twist 
Part  of  any  Hand-Rail  square  from  the  face  of  the  plank,  and  to  a 
parallel  width.  Also,  a  new  method  of  forming  the  Easings  of  the 
Rail  by  a  gauge ;  preceded  by  some  necessary  Problems  in  Practical 
Geometry,  with  the  Sections  of  Prismatic  Solids.  Illustrated  by  29 
plates.  By  R.  A.  CUPPER,  Architect,  author  of  "  The  Practical 
Stair-Builder's  Guide."  Third  Edition.  Large  4to. 

DAVIDSON.— A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting,  Grain- 
ing, Marbling,  and  Sign- Writing : 

Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Painting  in 
Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and  Practice  of  Sign- 
Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  a  Course  of  Elementary 
Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers,  etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful 
Receipts.  With  nine  colored  illustrations  of  Woods  and  Marbles, 
and  numerous  wood  engravings.  By  ELLIS  A.  DAVIDSON.  I2mo. 

$3.00 

TAVIES. — A   Treatise   on    Earthy  and   Other   Minerals   and 

Mining  : 

By  I).  C.  DA  VIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  etc.  Illustrated  by 
76  Engravings.  I2mo $S-°° 


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DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining: 
By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of  Mines, 
Quarries  and  Collieries.    Illustrated  by  148  engravings  of  Geological 
Formations,    Mining   Operations    and    Machinery,    drawn    from    th« 
practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world.    2d  Edition,  I2mo.,  450  pages  $5.00 

DAVIES.— A  Treatise  on  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying: 
Scientific,  Practical  and  Commercial.     By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S., 
Mining    Engineer,  etc.      With    numerous    illustrations    and    folding 
plates.     I2mo. $2.50 

DAVIS.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Bricks, 

Tiles,  Terra-Cotta,  etc. : 

Including  Common,  Pressed,  Ornamentally  Shaped,  and  Enamelled 
Bricks,  Drain-Tiles,  Straight  and  Curved  Sewer-Pipes,  Fire-Clays, 
Fire-Bricks,  Terra-Cotta,  Roofing-Tiles,  Flooring-Tiles,  Ait-Tiles, 
Mosaic  Plates,  and  Imitation  of  Intarsia  or  Inlaid  Surfaces;  com- 
prising every  important  Product  of  Clay  employed  in  Architecture, 
Engineering,  the  Blast-Furnace,  for  Retorts,  etc.,  with  a  History  and 
the  Actual  Processes  in  Handling,  Disintegrating,  Tempering,  and 
Moulding  the  Clay  into  Shape,  Drying  Naturally  and  Artificially, 
Setting  and  Burning,  Enamelling  in  Polychrome  Colors,  Composition 
and  Application  of  Glazes,  etc.;  including  Full  Detailed  Descriptions 
of  the  most  modern  Machines,  Tools,  Kilns,  and  Kiln-Roofs  used. 
By  CHARLES  THOMAS  DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  228  Engravings  and 
6  Plates.  8vo.,  472  pages $S-°° 

DAVIS.— The  Manufacture  of  Leather: 

Being  a  description  of  all  of  the  Processes  for  the  Tanning,  Tawing, 
Currying,  Finishing  and  Dyeing  of  every  kind  of  Leather  ;  including 
the  various  Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their 
Values;  the  Tools,  Machines,  and  all  Details  of  Importance  con- 
nected with  an  Intelligent  and  Profitable  Prosecution  of  the  Art,  with 
Special  Reference  to  the  Best  American  Practice.  To  which  are 
added  Complete  Lists  of  all  American  Patents  for  Materials,  Pro- 
cesses, Tools,  and  Machines  for  Tanning,  Currying,  etc  By  CHARLES 
THOMAS  DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  302  engravings  and  12  Samples  of 
Dyed  Leathers.  One  vol.,  8vo.,  824  pages  .  .  .  $10.00 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Raw  Materials  and  Fabrication  of  Glue,  Gelatine,  Gelatine 
Veneers  and  Foils,  Isinglass,  Cements,  Pastes,  Mucilages, 
etc.: 

Based  upon  Actual  Experience.  By  F.  DAWIDOWSKY,  Technical 
Chemist.  Translated  from  the  German,  with  extensive  additions, 
including  a  description  of  the  most  Recent  American  Processes,  by 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College 
of  Eldena,  Prussia.  35  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

DE  GRAFF.— The  Geometrical  Stair-Builders'  Guide: 

Being  a  Plain  Practical  System  of  Hand-Railing,  embracing  all  its 
necessary  Details,  and  Geometrically  Illustrated  by  twenty-two  Steel 
Engravings;  together  with  the  use  of  the  most  approved  principles 
«f  Practical  Geometry.  By  SIMON  DE  GRAFF,  Architect.  410. 

$2. 50 


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DE  KONINCK— DIETZ.— A   Practical   Manual   of   Chemical 

Analysis  and  Assaying : 

As  applied  to  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  from  its  Ores,  and  to  Cast  Iron, 
Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel,  as  found  in  Commerce.  By  L.  L.  DE 
KONINCK,  Dr.  Sc.,  and  E.  DIETZ,  Engineer.  Edited  with  Notes,  by 
ROBERT  MALLET,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  G.,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  etc.  American 
Edition,  Edited  with  Notes  and  an  Appendix  on  Iron  Ores,  by  A.  A. 
FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

DUNCAN.— Practical  Surveyor's  Guide: 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person  of  com- 
mon capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher. 
By  ANDREW  DUNCAN.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.25 

L'UPLAIS. — A  Treatise  on  the   Manufacture  and  Distillation 

of  Alcoholic  Liquors : 

Comprising  Accurate  and  Complete  Details  in  Regard  to  Alcohol 
from  Wine,  Molasses,  Beets,  Grain,  Rice,  Potatoes,  Sorghum,  Aspho- 
del, Fruits,  etc. ;  with  the  Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Brandy. 
Whiskey,  Rum,  Gin,  Swiss  Absinthe,  etc.,  the  Preparation  of  Aro- 
matic Waters,  Volatile  Oils  or  Essences,  Sugars,  Syrups,  Aromatic 
Tinctures,  Liqueurs,  Cordial  Wines,  Effervescing  Wines,  etc.,  the 
Ageing  of  Brandy  and  the  improvement  of  Spirits,  with  Copious 
Directions  and  Tables  for  Testing  and  Reducing  Spirituous  Liquors, 
etc.,  etc.  Translated  and  Edited  from  the  French  of  MM.  DUPLAIS, 
Aine  et  Jeune.  By  M.  McKENNlE,  M.  D.  To  which  are  added  the 
United  States  Internal  Revenue  Regulations  for  the  Assessment  and 
Collection  of  Taxes  on  Distilled  Spirits.  Illustrated  by  fourteen 
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PUSSAUCE.— A   General    Treatise   on   the   Manufacture   of 

Vinegar: 

Theoretical  and  Practical.  Comprising  the  various  Methods,  by  the 
Slow  and  the  Quick  Processes,  with  Alcohol,  Wine,  Grain,  Malt, 
Cider,  Molasses,  and  Beets;  ns  well  as  the  Fabrication  of  Wood 
Vinegar,  etc.,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  DUSSAUCE.  8vo.  .  $5  oo 

DUSSAUCE. — Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  Matches, 

Gun  Cotton,  and  Fulminating  Powder. 
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DYER  AND  COLOR-MAKER'S  COMPANION: 

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EDWARDS.— A  Catechism  of  the  Marine  Steam-Engine, 

For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Mechanics.  A  Practical 
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much  additional  matter.  12  mo.  414  pages  .  .  .  $2  OO 

EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Loccmotive  Engines, 

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EDWARDS.— Modern  American  Marine  Engines,  Boilers,  and 

Screw  Propellers, 

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EDWARDS. — The  Practical  Steam  Engineer's  Guide 

In  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Management  of  American  Stationary, 
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Governors,  Indicators,  Pistons  and  Rings,  Safety  Valves  and  Steam 
Gauges.  For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Steam  Users.  By 
EMORY  EDWARDS.  Illustrated  by  119  engravings.  420  pages. 
I2mo $2  50 

ELDER. — Conversations  on  the  Principal  Subjects  of  Political 

Economy. 
By  Dr.  WILLIAM  ELDER.  8vo. $2  50 

ELDER.— Questions  of  the  Day, 

Economic  and  Social.     By  Dr.  WILLIAM  ELDER.  8vo.     .         $3  oo 

ELDER. — Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 
By  Dr.  WILLIAM  ELDER.  8vo.  cloth 75 

ERNI. — Mineralogy  Simplified. 

Easy  Methods  of  Determining  and  Classifying  Minerals,  including 
Ores,  by  means  of  the  Blow]  ipe,  and  by  Humid  Chemical  Analysis, 
based  on  Professor  von  Kobell's  Tables  for  the  Determination  of 
Minerals,  with  an  Introduction  to  Modern  Chemistry.  By  HENRY 
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enlarged  and  improved.  I2mo.  ....  £30° 

FAIRBAIRN.— The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machinery 

of  Transmission  • 

Comprising  the  Principles  of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pulleys, 
Strength  and  Proportions  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shafts,  and  Engag- 
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FITCH.— Bessemer  Steel, 

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FLEMING.— Narrow  Gauge  Railways  in  America. 

A  Sketch  of  their  Rise,  Progress,  and  Success.  Valuable  Statistics 
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FORSYTH.— Book   of   Designs  for  Headstones,   Mural,   and 

other  Monuments : 

Containing  78  Designs.  By  JAMES  FORSYTH.  With  an  Introduction 
by  CHARLES  BOUTELL,  M.  A.  4  to.,  cloth  .  .  .  J>5  oo 


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FRANKEI — HUTTER.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu- 
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Based  on  the  German  of  LADISLAUS  VON  WAGNER,  Professor  in  the 
Royal    Technical     High    School,   Buda-Pest,   Hungary,   and   other 
authorities.     By  JULIUS   FRANKEL,  Graduate    of   the    Polytechnic 
School  of  Hanover.     Edited  by  ROBERT  HUTTER,  Chemist,  Practical; 
Manufacturer  of  Starch -Sugar.     Illustrated  by  58  engravings,  cover- 
ing every  branch   of  the  subject,   including   examples  of  the  most 
Recent  and  Best  American  Machinery.     8vo.,  344  pp.       .         $3.50 

GEE. — The  Goldsmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Gold, 
including  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing,  Coloring,  Col- 
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Waste  ;  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Gold ;  with  a  New 
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GEE. — The  Silversmith's  Handbook  : 

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Solders;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Alloys;  Methods  ofManipula- 
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Memoranda.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE,  Jeweller.  Illustrated.  I2mo. 

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GOTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET-MAKERS  : 

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GREENWOOD.— Steel  and  Iron : 

Comprising  the  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Several  Methods  Pur- 
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Mills,  the  Forge,  and  the  Foundry.  By  WILLIAM  HENRY  GREEN- 
WOOD, F.  C.  S.  Asso.  M.  I.  C.  E.,  M.  I.  M.  E.,  Associate  of  the  Royal 
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GREGORY.— Mathematics  for  Practical  Men  : 

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GRIER.— Rural  Hydraulics: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Rural  Household  Water  Supply.  Giving  a 
full  description  of  Springs  and  Wells,  of  Pumps  and  Hydraulic  Ram, 
with  Instructions  in  Cistern  Building,  Laying  of  Pipes,  etc.  By  W. 
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GRIMSH AW.— Modern  Milling: 

Being  the  substance  of  two  addresses  delivered  by  request,  at  the 
Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  January  igth  and  January  27th, 
1881.  By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW,  Ph.  D.  Edited  from  the  Phono- 
graphic Reports.  With  28  Illustrations.  8vo.  .  .  $1.00 

GRIMSHAW.— Saws : 

The  History,  Development,  Action,  Classification,  and  Comparison 
of  Saws  of  all  kinds.  With  Copious  Appendices,  Giving  the  details 


gin 
W. 


14         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

of  Manufacture,  Filing,  Setting,  Gumming,  etc.  Care  and  Use  of 
Saws;  .Tabjes  of  Gauges;  Capacities  of  Saw-Mills;  List  of  Saw- 
Patents,  and  other  valuable  information.  By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW. 
Second  and  greatly  enlarged  edition,  with  Supplement,  and  354  Illus- 
trations. Quarto  ........  $4.00 

GRIMSHAW.  —  A  Supplement  to  Grimshaw  on  Saws  : 

Containing  additional  practical  matter,  more  especially  relating  to  the 
Forms  of  Saw-Teeth,  for  special  material  and  conditions,  and  to  the 
Behavior  of  Saws  under  particular  conditions.  120  Illustrations.  By 
ROBERT  GRIMSHAW.  Quarto  .....  $2.00 

GRISWOLD.—  Railroad  Engineer's  Pocket  Companion  for  the 

Field  : 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and  Angles, 
Tangential  Distances  and  Angles,  and  all  Necessary  Tables  for  En- 

C'  leers;  also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from   Preliminary  Survey  to  the 
nstruction  of  Railroads,  intended  Expressly  for  the  Young  En- 
ineer, together  with  Numerous  Valuable  Rules  and  Examples.     By 
GRISWOLD.     I2mo.,  tucks  .....         $i-75 

GRUNER.  —  Studies  of  Blast  Furnace  Phenomena: 

By  M.  L.  GRUNER,  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines  of 
France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines. 
Translated,  with  the  author's  sanction,  with  an  Appendix,  by  L.  D. 
B.  GORDON,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S.  8vo.  .  .  .  12.50 

GUETTIER.—  Metallic  Alloys: 

Being  a  Practical  Guide  to  their  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties, 
their  Preparation,  Composition,  and  Uses.  Translated  from  the 
French  of  A.  GUETTIER,  Engineer  and  Director  of  Founderies, 
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HASERICK.—  The  Secrets  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Cotton, 

and  Linen, 

Including  Bleaching  and  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery  and 
Random  Yarns.  A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and  Practice.  By 
E.  C.  HASERICK.  Illustrated  by  323  Dyed  Patterns  of  the  Yarns 
or  Fabrics.  8vo  .........  $25.00 

HATS  AND  FELTING: 

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Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  etc.  8vo.  .  .  $1.25 

HENRY.—  The  Early  and  Later  History  of  Petroleum  : 

With  Authentic  Facts  in  resard  to  its  Development  in  Western  Penn- 
sylvania. With  Sketches  of  the  Pioneer  and  Prominent  Operators, 
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HENRY.  Illustrated  8vo.  ...... 

HOFFER.  —  A    Practical   Treatise   on   Caoutchouc  and   Gutta 

Percha, 

Comprising  the  Properties  of  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  manner  of 
Mixing  and  Working  them;  with  the  Fabrication  of  Vulcanized  and 
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proof  Substances,  Elastic  Tissues,  the  Utilization  of  Waste,  etc.,  etc. 
From  the  German  of  RAIMUND  HOFFER.  By  W.  .T.  ERANNT. 
Illustrated  I2mo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  ...  $2.50 

HOFMANN.— A   Practical   Treatise   on   the   Manufacture   of 

Paper  in  all  its  Branches  : 

By  CARL  HOFMANN,  Late  Superintendent  of  Paper-Mills  in  Germany 
and  the  United  States ;  recently  Manager  of  the  "  Public  Ledger " 
Paper-Mills,  near  Elkton,  Maryland.  Illustrated  by  no  wood  en- 
gravings, and  five  large  Folding  Plates.  410.,  cloth;  about  400 
pages #50.00 

HUGHES. — American  Miller  and  Millwright's  Assistant: 
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HULME. — Worked  Examination  Questions  in  Plane  Geomet- 
rical Drawing  : 

For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
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graph Departments ;  Royal  Marine  Light  Infantry  ;  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  etc.  By  F.  EDWARD  HULME,  F.  L. 
S.,  F.  S.  A.,  Art-Master  Maryborough  College.  Illustrated  by  300 
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JERV1S.— Railroad  Property : 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Railways ; 
designed  to  afford  useful  knowledge,  in  the  popular  style,  to  the 
holders  of  this  class  of  property  ;  as  well  as  Railway  Managers,  Offi- 
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KEENE.— A  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Gauging: 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners,  to  which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  Distilla' 
tion,  describing  the  process  in  operation  at  the  Custom-House  for 
ascertaining  the  Strength  of  \Vines.  By  JAMES  B.  KEENE,  of  H.  M. 
Customs.  8vo. $1.25 

KELLEY.— Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industrial  and 

Financial  Questions : 
By  HON.  WILLIAM  D.  KELLEY,  M.  C.     544  pages,  8vo.  .         #3.00 

KELLOGG. — A  New  Monetary  System  : 

The  only  means  of  Securing   the   respective   Rights  of  Labor   and 
Property,  and  of  Protecting  the  Public  from   Financial  Revulsions. 
By  EDWARD  KELLOGG.     Revised  from  his  work  on  "Labor  and 
other    Capital."     With    numerous    additions    from    his    manuscript. 
Edited  by  MARY  KELLOGG  PUTNAM.     Fifth  edition.     To  which  is 
added  a  Biographical  Sketch  of  the  Author.     One  volume,  I2mo. 
Paper  cover       .........         $1.00 

Bound  in  cloth  ........  1.50 

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's  Hand-Book : 
Being  a  Complete  Guide  to  the  Young  Beginner,  in  Taking  Apart, 
Putting  Together,  and  Thoroughly  Cleaning  the  English  Lever  and 
other  Foreign  Watches,  and  all  American  Watches.     By  F.  KEMLO, 
Practical  Watchmaker.     With  Illustrations.     121110,  .         #1.25 


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KENTISH. — A  Treatise  on  a  Box  of  Instruments, 

And  the  Slide  Rule ;  with  the  Theory  of  Trigonometry  and  Loga 
rithms,  including  Practical  Geometry,  Surveying,  Measuring  of  Tim. 
ber,  Cask  and  Malt  Gauging,  Heights,  and  Distances.  By  THOMAS 
KENTISH.  In  one  volume.  I2mo.  ....  #1.25 

KERL.— The  Assayer's  Manual: 

An  Abridged  Treatise  on  the  Docimastic  Examination  of  Ores,  and 
Furnace  and  other  Artificial  Products.  By  BRONX)  KERL,  Professor 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines ;  Member  of  the  Royal  Technical 
Commission  for  the  Industries,  and  of  the  Imperial  Patent-Office, 
Berlin.  Translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  of  Eldena,  Prussia. 
Edited  by  WILLIAM  H.  WAHL,  Ph.  D.,  Secretary  of  the  Franklin 
Institute,  Philadelphia.  Illustrated  by  sixty-five  engravings.  8vo. 

$3.00 
KINGZETT.— The   History,   Products,  and   Processes  of  the 

Alkali  Trade : 

Including  the  most  Recent  Improvements.     By  CHARLES  THOMAS 
KINGZETT,  Consulting  Chemist.    With  23  illustrations.    8vo.       $2.50 
KINSLEY.— Self-Instructor  on  Lumber  Surveying: 

For  the  Use  of  Lumber  Manufacturers,  Surveyors,  and  Teachers. 
By  CHARLES  KINSLEY,  Practical  Surveyor  and  Teacher  of  Surveying. 

I2mo £2.00 

KIRK.— The  Founding  of  Metals: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Melting  of  Iron,  with  a  Description  of  the 
Founding  of  Alloys;  also,  of  all  the  Metals  and  Mineral  Substances 
used  in  the  Art  of  Founding.     Collected  from  original  sources.     By 
EDWARD  KIRK,  Practical   Foundryman  and  Chemist.     Illustrated. 
Third  edition.     8vo.  .......         $2.50 

KITTREDGE.— The    Compendium    of    Architectural    Sheet- 
Metal  Work : 

Profusely  Illustrated.    Embracing  Rules  and  Directions  for  Estimates, 
Items  of  Cost,  Nomenclature,  Tables  of  Brackets,  Modillions,  Den- 
tals, Trusses,  Stop-Blocks,  Frieze  Pieces,  etc.     Architect's  Specifica- 
tion, Tables  of  Tin-Roofing,  Galvanized  Iron,  etc.,  etc.     To  which  is 
added  the  Exemplar  of  Architectural  Sheet-Metal  Work,  containing 
details  of  the  Centennial  Buildings,  and  other  important  Sheet-Metal 
Work,  Designs  and  Prices  of  Architectural  Ornaments,  as  manufac- 
tured for  the  Trade  by  the  Kittredge  Cornice  and  Ornnment   Com- 
pany, and  a  Catalogue  of  Cornices,  Window-Caps,  Mouldings,  etc.,  as 
manufactured   by   the   Kittredge   Cornice   and   Ornament   Company. 
The  whole  supplemented  by  a  full  Index  and  Table  of  Contents.    By 
A.  O.  KITTREDGE.    8vo.,  565  pages          .... 

LANDRIN.— A  Treatise  on  Steel: 

Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical  Working, 
and  Use.  By  M.  H.  C.  LANDRIN,  JR.,  Civil  Engineer.  Translated 
from  the  French,  with  Notes,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  an  Appendix  on  the  Bessemer  and  the  Martin  Pro- 
cesses for  Manufacturing  Steel,  from  the  Report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  17 

United  States  Commissioner  to  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867. 

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LARDEN.— A  School  Course  on  Heat : 

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NAPIER.— A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing. 

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NYSTROM.— A  New  Treatise  on  Elements  of  Mechanics  : 
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NYSTROM.— On  Technological  Education  and  the  Construc- 
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O'NEILL. — A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing : 

Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Processes  in 
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ORTON. — Underground  Treasures-. 

How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  Determination 
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ORTON,  A.M.,  Late  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Vassar  College, 
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OSBORN. — The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel: 

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OVERMAN.— The  Manufacture  of  Steel : 

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OVERMAN.— The  Moulder's  and  Founder's  Pocket  Guide  : 
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PEARSE. — A  Concise  History  of  the  Iron  Manufacture  of  the 
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PERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  New  Guide  to  the  Sheet-iron 

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PROTEAUX.— Practical  Guide  for  the  Manufacture  of  Paper 

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By  A.  PROTEAUX.  From  the  French,  by  HORATIO  PAINE,  A.  B., 
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PROCTOR.— A  Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Tables  and  Formulae 

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REGNAULT.— Elements  of  Chemistry. 

By  M.  V.  REGNAULT.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  FORREST 
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RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.— A  Practical 

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Treatment  of  the  Raw  Materials ;  the  best  Formula;  and  the  Newest 
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ROPER. — A  Catechism  of  High-Pressure,  or  Non-Condensing 

Steam-Engines  : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Constructing,  and  Management  of  Steam- 
Engines  and  Steam  Boilers.  With  valuable  illustrations.  By  STE- 
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ROPER. — Engineer's  Handy-Book: 

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the  Mercantile  Marine,  or  to  take  charge  of  the  Better  Class  of  Sta- 
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ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Construction,  Running,  and  Management 
of  Lane'  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.  With  illustrations.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Sixth  edition.  I2mo.,tx'cks,  gilt  edge. 

#3-5<> 

ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive  : 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the  Construc- 
tion, Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives.  By  STEPHEN 
ROPER.  Eleventh  edition.  i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  .  $2.50 

ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fire-Engines. 

With  illustrations.  By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Fourth  edition, 
I2mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $3-5O 

ROPER. — Questions  and  Answers  for  Engineers. 

This  little  book  contains  all  the  Questions  that  Engineers  will  be 
asked  when  undergoing  an  Examination  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
Licenses,  and  they  are  so  plain  that  any  Engineer  or  Fireman  of  or- 
dinary intelligence  may  commit  them  to  memory  in  a  short  time.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Third  edition  .  .  .  $3.00 

ROPER.— Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler. 

By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Eighth  edition,  with  illustrations. 
iSmo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $2.00 

ROSE. — The  Complete  Practical  Machinist: 

Embracing  Lathe  Work,  Vise  Work,  Drills  and  Drilling,  Taps  and 
Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of  Tools, 
Tool  Grinding,  Marking  out  Work,  etc.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE.  Illus- 
trated by  356  engravings.  Thirteenth  edition,  thoroughly  revised 
and  in  great  part  rewritten.  In  one  vol.,  I2tno.,  439  pages  $2.50 

ROSE.— Mechanical  Drawing  Self-Taught : 

Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of  Drawing 
Instrument,  Elementary.  Instruction  in  Practical  Mechanical  Draw- 


24  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

ing,  together  with  Examples  in  Simple  Geometry  and  Elementary 
Mechanism,  including  Screw  Threads,  Gear  Wheels,  Mechanical  Mo- 
tions, Engines  and  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.,  Author  of 
"  The  Complete  Practical  Machinist,"  "  The  Pattern-maker's  Assist- 
ant," "  The  Slide-valve."  Illustrated  by  330  engravings.  8vo.,  3^ 
pages £4.00 

ROSE.— The  Slide-Valve  Practically  Explained : 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of  the 
operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement,  and  illustrating 
the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions  by  examples  carefully 
selected  from  the  most  recent  and  successful  practice.  By  JOSHUA 
ROSE,  M.  E.,  Author  of  "The  Complete  Practical  Machinist,"  "  The 
Pattern-maker's  Assistant,"  etc.  Illustrated  by  35  engravings  $1.00 

ROSS. — The  Blowpipe  in  Chemistry,  Mineralogy  and  Geology  : 
Containing  all  Known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many  \Vork- 
ing  Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus.  By  LIKUT.- 
COLONEL  W.  A.  Ross,  R.  A.  F.,  G.  S.  With  120  Illustrations. 
I2mo $1.50 

SHAW.— Civil  Architecture  : 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building,  con- 
taining the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  EDW.  RD  SHAW, 
Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Architecture,  etc. 
By  THOMAS  W.  SILLOWAY  and  GEORGE  M.  HARDING,  Architects. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper. 
Eleventh  edition.  410.  .......  $10.00 

SHUNK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Loca- 
tion, for  Young  Engineers. 

By  WILLIAM  F.  SHUNK,  Civil  Engineer.  lamo.  Full  bound  pocket- 
book  form $2.00 

SLATER.— The  Manual  of  Colors  and  Dye  Wares. 
By  J.  W.  SLATER.     12010 53-73 

SLOAN. — American  Houses: 

A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
twenty-six  colored  Engravings,  with  Descriptive  References.  By 
SAMUEL  SLOAN,  Architect,  author  of  the  "  Model  Architect,"  etc. 
etc.  8vo $1.50 

SLOAN. — Homestead  Architecture  : 

Containing  Forty  Designs  for  Villas,  Cottages,  and  Farm-houses,  with 
Essays  on  Style,  Construction,  Landscape  Gardening,  Furniture,  etc., 
etc.  Illustrated  by  upwards  of  200  engravings.  By  SAMUEL  SLOAN, 
Architect.  8vo '  .  .  53  oa 

SMEATON. — Builder's  Pocket-Companion  : 

Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  Surveying,  and  Architecture ; 
with  Practical  Rules  and  Instructions  connected  with  the  subject.  By 
A.  C.  SMEATON,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.50 

SMITH.— A  Manual  of  Political  Economy. 

By  E.  PESHINE  SMITH.  A  new  Edition,  to  which  is  added  a  full 
Index.  I2mo $i-25 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          25 

SMITH.— Parks  and  Pleasure- Grounds  : 

Or  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public  Parks,  and 
Gardens.  By  CHARLES  H.  J.  SMITH,  Landscape  Gardener  and 
Garden  Architect,  etc.,  etc.  I2mo.  ....  $2.OO 

SMITH.— The  Dyer's  Instructor: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cotton, 
Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woolen  Goods;  containing  nearly  800 
Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Padding;  and 
the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and  Handkerchiefs,  and  the 
various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of  such  work. 
By  DAVID  SMITH,  Pattern  Dyer.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $3.00 

SMYTH. — A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Coal  and  Coal-Mining. 
By  WARRINGTON  W.  SMYTH,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.,  President  R.  G.  S. 
of  Cornwall.  Fifth  edition,  revised  and  corrected.  With  numer- 
ous illustrations.  I2mo.  ......  $'«75 

SNIVELY. — A  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Perfumes  and 

Kindred  Toilet  Articles. 

By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.,  Professor  of  Analytical  Chemistry  in 
the  Tennessee  College  of  Pharmacy.  8vo.  .  .  .  $3.00 

SNIVELY.— Tables  for  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical  Anal- 
ysis. 
By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.     8vo.        ....        $1.00 

SNIVELY.— The  Elements  of  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical 

Analysis : 

A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.    By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.    i6mo. 

$2.00 

STEWART.— The  American  System  : 

Speeches  on  the  Tariff  Question,  and  on  Internal  Improvements, 
principally  delivered  in  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States.  By  ANDREW  STEWART,  late  M.  C.  from  Pennsylvania. 
With  a  Portrait,  and  a  Biographical  Sketch.  8vo.  .  .  $3.00 

STOKES. — The  Cabinet  Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Companion  : 
Comprising  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable  to  Cabinet  Work ; 
Veneering,  Inlaying,  and  Buhl-Work;  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Stain- 
ing Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lacker^ 
ing,  Japanning,  and  Varnishing;  to  make  French  Polish,  Glues% 
Cements,  and  Compositions;  with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  work- 
men generally.  By  J.  STOKES.  Illustrated.  A  New  Edition,  with 
an  Appendix  upon  French  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing, 
etc.,  etc.  I2mo $1-2$ 

STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS: 
Reports  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties  of 
Metals  for  Cannon.  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines  for  Testing 
Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in  service.  By  Officers 
of  the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  Army.  By  authority  of  the  Secre- 
tory of  War.  Illustrated  by  25  large  steel  plates.  Quarto  .  $10.00 

SULLIVAN. — Protection  to  Native  Industry. 

By  Sir  EDWARD  SULLIVAN, .Baronet,  author  of  "Ten  Chapters  on 
Social  Reforms."  8vo.  .......  $1.50 


26         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


SYME.— Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science. 

By  DAVID  SYME.     iamo.  .  ...        $2.oc 

TABLES      SHOWING     THE     WEIGHT     OF     ROUND, 

SQUARE,  AND  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC., 
By  Measurement.     Cloth  63 

TAYLOR.— Statistics  of  Coal : 

Including  Mineral  Bituminous  Substances  employed  in  Arts  and 
Manufactures;  with  their  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Commercial 
Distribution  and  Amount  of  Production  and  Consumption  on  the 
American  Continent.  With  Incidental  Statistics  of  the  Iron  Manu- 
facture. By  R.  C.  TAYLOR.  Second  edition,  revised  by  S.  S.  HALDE- 
MAN.  Illustrated  by  five  Maps  and  many  wood  engravings.  8vo., 
cloth $10.00 

TEMPLETON.— The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and  the 

Steam -Engine: 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  arranged  for  the  Use  of 
Engineers,  Students,  and  others.  By  WILLIAM  TEMPLETON,  En- 
gineer. I2mo.  ....••••  $1-25 

THAUSING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation  of 

Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer: 

With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing.  Elab- 
orated from  personal  experience  by  JULIUS  E.  THAUSING,  Professor 
at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  nt  the  Agricultural  Institute,  Modling, 
near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Thoroughly  and  elaborately  edited,  with  much  American  matter,  and 
according  to  the  latest  and  most  Scientific  Practice,  by  A.  SCHWARZ 
and  DR.  A.  H.  BAUER.  Illustrated  by  140  Engravings.  8vo.,  815 
pages  ..........  JjSio.co 

THOMAS.— The  Modern  Practice  of  Photography: 

By  R.  W.  THOMAS,  F.  C.  S.    8vo.  ...  75 

THOMPSON. — Political  Economy.     With  Especial  Reference 

to  the  Industrial  History  of  Nations  : 

By  ROBERT  E.  THOMPSON,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Social  Science  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  I2m<>.  ....  $1.50 

THOMSON.— Freight  Charges  Calculator: 

By  ANDREW  THOMSON,  Freight  Agent.     241110.        .        .        $1.25 

TURNER'S  (THE)  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric  Turn- 
ing; also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instruments;  and 
Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutler,  Drill,  Vertical  Culter,  and 
Circular  Rest;  with  .Patterns  and  Instructions  for  working  them. 
I2mo $1-25 

TURNING  :   Specimens  of  Fancy  Turning   Executed  on  the 

Hand  or  Foot- Lathe  : 

With  Geometric,  Oval,  and  Eccentric  Chucks,  and  Elliptical  Cutting 
Frame.  By  an  Amateur.  Illustrated  by  30  exquisite  Photogr.-.phs. 
4to. 33-00 

URBIN— BRULL.— A  Practical  Guide  for  Puddling  Iron  and 

Steel. 
By  ED.  URBIN,  Engineer  of  Arts  and  Manufactures.     A  Prize  Essay, 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


read  before  the  Association  of  Engineers,  Graduate  of  the  School  of 
Mines,  of  Liege,  Belgium,  at  the  Meeting  of  1865-6.  To  which  is 
added  A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  RESISTING  PROPERTIES  OF  IRON  AND 
STEEL.  By  A.  BRULL.  Translated  from  the  French  by  A.  A.  FES- 
QUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  8vo.  ....  $1.00 

VAILE.— Galvanized-Iron  Cornice-Worker's  Manual: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Laying  out  the  Different  Mitres,  and 
Making  Patterns  for  all  kinds  of  Plain  and  Circular  Work.  Also, 
Tables  of  Weights,  Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  other 
Matter  calculated  to  Benefit  the  Trade.  By  CHARLES  A.  VAILE. 
Illustrated  by  twenty-one  plates.  410.  ....  $5.00 

VILLE.— On  Artificial  Manures  : 

Their  Chemical  Selection  and  Scientific  Application  to  Agriculture. 
A  series  of  Lectures  given  at  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Vincennes, 
during  1867  and  1874-75.  By  M.  GEORGES  VILLE.  Translated  and 
Edited  by  WILLIAM  CROOKES,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravings.  8vo.,  450  pages  ......  $6.00 

VILLE.— The  School  of  Chemical  Manures  : 

Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents.  From 
the  French  of  M.  GEO.  VILLE,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  Illustrations.  I2mo.  ....  $1.25 

VOGDES. — The  Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket- Companion 

and  Price-Book  : 

Consisting  of  a  Short  but  Comprehensive  Epitome  of  Decimals,  Duo- 
decimals, Geometry  and  Mensuration;  with  Tables  of  United  States 
Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strengths,  etc.,  of  Iron,  Wood,  Stone, 
Brick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quantities  of  Materials  in  given  Sizes 
and  Dimensions  of  Wood,  Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete 
Bills  of  Prices  for  Carpenter's  Work  and  Painting;  also,  Rules  for 
Computing  and  Valuing  Biick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Paint- 
ing, Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms,  etc.  By 
FRANK  VV.  VOGDES,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged,  revised, 
and  corrected.  In  one  volume,  368  pages,  full-bound,  pocket-book 

form,  gilt  edges $2.00 

Cloth         .  1.50 

WAHL. — Galvanoplastic  Manipulations  : 

A  Practical  Guide  tor  the  Gold  and  Silver  Electroplater  and  the  Gal- 
vanoplastic Operator.  Comprising  the  Electro-Deposition  of  all 
Metals  by  means  of  the  Battery  and  the  Dynamo-Electric  Machine, 
as  well  as  the  most  approved  Processes  of  Deposition  by  Simple  Im- 
mersion, with  Descriptions  of  Apparatus,  Chemical  Products  employed  . 
in  the  Art,  etc.  Based  largely  on  the  "  Manipulations  Hydroplas- 
tiques"  of  ALFRED  ROSELEUR.  By  WILLIAM  H.  WAHL,  Ph.  D. 
(  Heid),  Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute.  Illustrated  by  189  en- 
gravings. 8vo.,  656  pages $7-5° 

WALTON.— Coal-Mining  Described  and  Illustrated: 
By  THOMAS  H.  WALTON,  Mining  Engineer.     Illusirated  by  24  large 
and  elaborate  Plates,  after  Actual  Workings  and  Apparatus.  $5.00 


28          HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


WARE.—  The  Sugar  Beet. 

Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe,  Varieties 

'  of  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examination,  Soils,  Tillage,  Seeds  and  Sowing, 
Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Transportation,  Conserva- 
tion, Feeding  Qualities  of  the  Beet  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.  By  LEWIS 
S.  WARE,  C.  E.,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  ninety  engravings.  8vo. 

$4.00 

WARN.—  The  Sheet-Metal  Worker's  Instructor: 
For  Zinc,  Sheet-Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin-Plate  Workers,  etc.  Contain- 
ing a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems  ;  also,  Practical  and  Simple 
Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns  required  in  the  different 
branches  of  the'  above  Trades.  By  REUBEN  H.  WARN,  Practical 
Tin-Plate  Worker.  To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing 
Instructions  for  Boiler-Making,  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids, 
Rules  for  Calculating  the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Iron,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty. 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.  8vo.  .  £3.00 

WARNER.—  New  Theorems,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  for  the 

Computation  of  Earth-work  : 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final  Estimate^ 
of  Students  in  Engineering,  and  of  Contractors  and  other  non-profes. 
sional  Computers.  In  two  parts,  with  an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Prac- 
tical Treatise;  Part  II.  A  Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Appendix. 
Containing  Notes  to  the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I.;  Explana- 
tions of  the  Construction  of  Scales,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a 
Treatise  upon  Equivalent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  numerous  original  engravings,  comprising 
explanatory  cuts  for  Definitions  and  Problems,  Stereometric  Scales 
and  Diagrams,  and  a  series  of  Lithographic  Drawings  from  Models  s 
Showing  all  the  Combinations  of  Solid  Forms  which  occur  in  Railroad 
Excavations  and  Embankments.  By  JOHN  WARNER,  A.  M.,  Mining 
and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  14  Plates.  A  new,  revised 
and  improved  edition.  8vo  .......  $4.00 

WATSON.—  A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe  : 

Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all  kinds, 
Ivory,  Bone  and  Precious  Woods  ;  Dyeing,  Coloring,  and  French 
Polishing;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various  methods  practised  to 
produce  Elaborate  work  with  Dispatch,  and  at  Small  Expense.  By 
EGBERT  P.  WATSON,  Author  of  "  The  Modern  Practice  of  American 
Machinists  and  Engineers."  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  $1.50 

WATSON.  —  The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and 

Engineers  : 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills,  Lathe 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work  generally  ,  \\  ith 
the  most  Economical  Speed  for  the  same  ;  the  Results  verified  by 
Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise,  and  on  the  Floor.  T«igethei 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          29 

with  Workshop  Management,  Economy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam- 
Engine,  Boilers,  Gears,  Belting,  etc.,  etc.  By  EGBERT  P.  WATSON. 
Illustrated  by  eighty-six  engravings.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

WATSON.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Weaving 

by  Hand  and  Power  : 

With  Calculations  and  Tables  for  the  Use  of  those  connected  with  the 
Trade.  By  JOHN  WATSON,  Manufacturer  and  Practical  Machine- 
Maker.  Illustrated  by  large  Drawings  of  the  best  Power  Looms. 
8vo.  .  $7.50 

WATT.— The  Art  of  Soap  Making: 

A  Practical  Hand-book  of  the  Manufacture  of  Hard  and  Soft  Soaps, 
Toilet  Soaps,  etc.,  including  many  New  Processes,  and  a  Chapter  on 
the  Recovery  of  Glycerine  from  Waste  Leys.  By  ALEXANDER 
WATT.  111.  i2mo. $3.00 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar,  Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods, 
And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  etc.,  in  which  are  explained, 
in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner,  the  various  Methods  of  Manufactur- 
ing every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar  Goods,  as  sold  by 
Confectioners  and  others.  121110 $1.50 

WEDDING.— Elements  of  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron. 

By  Dr.  HERMANN  WEDDING,  Royal  Privy  Counsellor  of  Mines,  Ber- 
lin, Prussia.  Translated  from  the  second  revised  and  rewritten  Ger- 
man edition.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Ag- 
ricultural College  at  Eldena,  Prussia.  Edited  by  WILLIAM  H. 
WAHL,  Ph.D.,  Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia. 
Illustrated  by  about  250  engravings.  8vo.,  about  500  pages  (In  prep- 
aration.) .......... 

WEINHOLD.— Introduction  to  Experimental  Physics,  Theo- 
retical and  Practical. 

Including  directions  for  Constructing  Physical  Apparatus  and  for 
Making  Experiments.  By  ADOLF  F.  WEINHOLD,  Professor  in  the 
Royal  Technical  School  at  Chemnitz.  Tianslated  and  edited,  with 
the  author's  sanction,  by  BENJAMIN  LoEWY,  F.  R.  A.  S.,  with  a 
preface,  by  G.  C.  FOSTER,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  three  colored  plates 
and  404  wood-cuts.  8vo.,  848  pages  ....  $6.00 

WIGHTWICK.— Hints  to  Young  Architects: 

Comprising  Advice  to  those  who,  while  yet  at  school,  are  destined 
to  the  Profession;  to  such  as,  having  passed  their  pupilage,  are  about 
to  travel ;  and  to  those  who,  having  completed  their  education,  are 
about  to  practise.  Together  with  a  Model  Specification  involvii.g  a 
great  variety  of  instructive  and  suggestive  matter.  By  GEORC.K 
WlGHTWICK,  Architect.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged;  comprising  Treatises  on  the  Principles  of  Construction 
and  Design.  By  G.  HUSKISSON  GUILLAUME,  Architect.  Numerous 
Illustrations.  One  vol.  I2mo £2.00 

WILL.— Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 

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